Unit I: History of Civilisation in India

(Indus Valley Civilization, Early & Later Vedic Period, Sixteen Janapadas, Rise and Fall of Mauryan Dynasty, Rajputs Dynasty and Mughals Dynasty)

India's history and culture is dynamic, spanning back to the beginning of human civilization. It begins with a mysterious culture along the Indus River and in farming communities in the southern lands of India. The history of India is punctuated by constant integration of migrating people with the diverse cultures that surround India. Available evidence suggests that the use of iron, copper and other metals was widely prevalent in the Indian sub-continent at a fairly early period, which is indicative of the progress that this part of the world had made. By the end of the fourth millennium BC, India had emerged as a region of highly developed civilization.

The Indus Valley Civilization: The History of India begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization, more precisely known as Harappan Civilization. It flourished around 2,500 BC, in the western part of South Asia, what today is Pakistan and Western India. The Indus Valley was home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China. Nothing was known about this civilization till 1920s when the Archaeological Department of India carried out excavations in the Indus valley wherein the ruins of the two old cities, viz. Mohenjodaro and Harappa were unearthed. The ruins of buildings and other things like household articles, weapons of war, gold and silver ornaments, seals, toys, pottery wares, etc., show that some four to five thousand years ago a highly developed Civilization flourished in this region.

The Indus valley civilization was basically an urban civilization and the people lived in well-planned and well-built towns, which were also the centers for trade. The ruins of Mohenjodaro and Harappa show that these were magnificent merchant cities-well planned, scientifically laid, and well looked after. They had wide roads and a well-developed drainage system. The houses were made of baked bricks and had two or more storeys.

The highly civilized Harappans knew the art of growing cereals, and wheat and barley constituted their staple food. They consumed vegetables and fruits and ate mutton, pork and eggs as well. Evidences also show that they wore cotton as well as woollen garments. By 1500 BC, the Harappan culture came to an end. Among various causes ascribed to the decay of Indus Valley Civilization are the recurrent floods and other natural causes like earthquake, etc.

Vedic Civilization: The Vedic civilization is the earliest civilization in the history of ancient India. It is named after the Vedas, the early literature of the Hindu people. The Vedic Civilization flourished along the river Saraswati, in a region that now consists of the modern Indian states of Haryana and Punjab. Vedic is synonymous with Hinduism, which is another name for religious and spiritual thought that has evolved from the Vedas. The Ramayana and Mahabharata were the two great epics of this period.

The Buddhist Era: During the life time of Lord Gautam Buddha, sixteen great powers (Mahajanpadas) existed in the 7th and early 6th centuries BC. Among the more important republics were the Sakyas of Kapilavastu and the Licchavis of Vaishali. Besides the republics, there were monarchical states, among which the important ones were Kaushambi (Vatsa), Magadha, Kosala and Avanti. These states were ruled by vigorous personalities who had embarked upon the policies of aggrandisement and absorption of neighbouring states. However, there were distinct signs of the republican states while those under the monarchs were expanding.

Buddha was born in BC 560 and died at the age of eighty in BC 480. The place of his birth was a grove known as Lumbini, near the city of Kapilavastu, at the foot of Mount Palpa in the Himalayan ranges within Nepal. Buddha, whose original name was Siddhartha Gautama, was the founder of Buddhism, the religion and the philosophical system that evolved into a great culture throughout much of southern and eastern Asia.

Early stages of settlement of the tribes happened before the time of the Buddha. Hence, historical references of these ‘mahajanapadas’ can be found in ancient Buddhist texts. Many such texts talk about ‘16 great kingdoms’ that flourished between the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE. The period between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE is considered extremely important in early Indian history as it witnessed the emergence of massive Indian cities, which were built after the fall of the Indus Valley Civilization. These massive Indian cities were home to the 16 great kingdoms described in the ancient texts. In the modern era the term ‘mahajanapadas’ is often used to refer the 16 great kingdoms, which are mentioned below.

16 Mahajanapadas and their Capitals

Mahajanapadas                    Capital                        Location

Magadha                     Girivraj or Rajgriha    District Patna, Gaya

Anga                           Champa or Champanagari      Munger and Bhagalpur Dist of Bihar

Kashi                           Varanashi        Varanashi dist of Uttar Pradesh

Kosala                         Saravasti         Faizabad, Gonda region or Eastern UP

Malla                          Kushinagar or Pawa   South of Vaishali dist in UP

Kuru                            Hastinapur                  Haryana and Delhi

Chedi                          Suktimati                    Eastern part of Bundelkhand

Panchal                                   Ahichharta & Kampilya                     Rahilkhand Western Uttar Pradesh

Sursena                                   Mathura                      Brajmandal Mathura region

Matsya                                    Viratnagar                   Alwar, Jaipur, Bharatpur in Rajasthan

Avanti                         Malwa/Ujjain             Ujjain District

Gandhara                    Taxila                          Western Part of Pakistan and Afghanistan

Kamboj                                   Rajput/Hataka             Punch area in Kashmir and Hazara dist of Pakistan

Ashmika                     Potana / Patali            Between river Narmada and Godavari

Vatsa                           Kaushambi                  Dist of Allahabad Mirzapur of Uttar Pradesh

Vajji                            Vaishali                                  Vaishali dist. of Bihar

Gupta Dynasty

After the Kushanas, the Guptas were the most important dynasty. The Gupta period has been described as the Golden Age of Indian history. The first famous king of the Gupta dynasty was Ghatotkacha's son Chandragupta I. He married Kumaradevi, the daughter of the chief of the Licchavis. This marriage was a turning point in the life of Chandragupta I. He got Pataliputra in dowry from the Lichhavis. From Pataliputra, he laid the foundation of his empire and started conquering many neighbouring states with the help of the Licchavis. He ruled over Magadha (Bihar), Prayaga and Saketa (east Uttar Pradesh). His kingdom extended from the river Ganges to Allahabad. Chandragupta I also got the title of Maharajadhiraja (King of Kings) and ruled for about fifteen years.

Chandragupta I was succeeded by Samudragupta in about 330 A.D., who reigned for about fifty years. He was a great military genius and is said to have commanded a military campaign across the Deccan, and also subdued the forest tribes of the Vindhya region.

Samudragupta's successor Chandragupta II, also known as Vikramaditya, conquered the extensive territories of Malwa, Gujarat and Kathiawar. This provided exceptional wealth, which added to the prosperity of the Guptas. The Guptas in this period engaged in sea trade with the countries of the west. It was most probably during his reign that Kalidas, the greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist, as well as many other scientist and scholars flourished.

Decline of Gupta Dynasty

The decline of the Gupta power in northern India between the close of 5th and the 6th century A.D. gave rise to various small independent kingdoms and attracted foreign invasions of Huns. Toramara was the leader of the Huns and was successful in annexing large parts of the Gupta Empire. His son, Mihirakula was a cruel barbarian and one of the worst tyrants known. Two native powerful princes, Yasodharman of Malwa and Baladitya of Magadha crushed his power and put an end to his reign in India.

MAURYAN DYNASTY

The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power based in Magadha and founded by Chandragupta Maurya which dominated the Indian subcontinent between 322 and 185 BCE. The empire stretched over parts of modern Iran and almost the entire Indian subcontinent, barring only the southern peninsular tip. According to legend, the teacher Chanakya convinced his disciple, Chandragupta Maurya, to conquer the the kingdom of Magadha (the Nanda Empire ) when he was insulted by its king Dhana Nanda. Chandragupta Maurya expanded the Maurya Empire north and west as he conquered the Macedonian Satrapies and won the Seleucid-Mauryan war. In its time, the Maurya Empire was one of the largest empires of the world.

Ashoka the Great

Bindusara died in 272 BCE, and was succeeded by his son, Ashoka the Great (304-232 BCE). As a young prince, Ashoka (r. 272-232 BCE) was a brilliant commander who crushed revolts in Ujjain and Taxila. As monarch, he was ambitious and aggressive, reasserting the Empire’s superiority in southern and western India. But it was his conquest of Kalinga (262-261 BCE) that proved to be the pivotal event of his life. Although Ashoka’s army succeeded in overwhelming Kalinga forces of royal soldiers and civilian units, an estimated 100,000 soldiers and civilians were killed in the furious warfare, including over 10,000 of Ashoka’s own men. Hundreds of thousands of people were adversely affected by the destruction and fallout of war. When he personally witnessed the devastation, Ashoka began feeling remorse. Although the annexation of Kalinga was completed, Ashoka embraced the teachings of Buddhism, and renounced war and violence. He sent out missionaries to travel around Asia and spread Buddhism to other countries.

Causes for the Decline of the Mauryas

The causes for the decline of the Mauryan empire have been widely debated by scholars. The traditional approach attributes the decline to Asoka’s policies and his weak successors. Another approach holds the inadequate political and economic institutions to sustain such a vast empire.

It was said that Asoka’s pro-Buddhist policies antagonized the Brahmins who brought about a revolution led by Pushyamitra Sunga. But Asoka was never acted against Brahmins. That Asoka’s policy of non-violence reduced the fighting spirit of his army was another charge against him. But Asoka had never slackened his control over his empire despite following a pacifist policy. Therefore solely blaming Asoka for the decline of the Mauryan empire may not be correct because Asoka was more a pragmatist than an idealist.

There are multiple causes for the decline of the Mauryan empire such as weak successors, partition of empire and administrative abuses after Asoka’s reign. The combination of these factors speeded up the breakup of the Mauryan empire and facilitated Pushyamitra Sunga to drive away the Mauryan power and establish the Sunga dynasty.

Rajputs Dynasty

A Rajput (from Sanskrit raja-putra, “son of a king”) is a member of one of the patrilineal clans of western, central, northern India and some parts of Pakistan. They claim to be descendants of ruling Hindu warrior classes of North India. Rajputs rose to prominence during the 6th to 12th centuries. Until the 20th century, Rajputs ruled in the “overwhelming majority” of the princely states of Rajasthan and Surashtra, where the largest number of princely states were found.

The Rajput population and the former Rajput states are found spread through much of the subcontinent, particularly in north, west and central India. Populations are found in Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Jammu, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar.

There are several major subdivisions of Rajputs, known as vansh or vamsha, the step below the super-division jati. These vansh delineate claimed descent from various sources, and the Rajput are generally considered to be divided into three primary vansh:

1.     Suryavanshi denotes descent from the solar deity Surya,

2.     Chandravanshi from the lunar deity Chandra, and

3.     Agnivanshi from the fire deity Agni. Lesser-noted vansh include Udayvanshi, Rajvanshi, and Rishivanshi.

The histories of the various vanshs were later recorded in documents known as vanshaavaliis. Beneath the vansh division are smaller and smaller subdivisions: kul, shakh (“branch”), khamp or khanp (“twig”), and nak (“twig tip”). Marriages within a kul are generally disallowed (with some flexibility for kul-mates of different gotra lineages). The kul serves as primary identity for many of the Rajput clans, and each kul is protected by a family goddess, the kuldevi.

 The main lineages

Rajputs who are descended from the thirty-six royal Kshatriya clans mentioned in the sacred books, the Puranas, and in the two great Indian epics, the “Mahabharata” and the “Ramayana”, are classified into three basic lineages (vanshas or vamshas):

1.     Suryavanshi: or Raghuvanshies (the clans of the Solar dynasty), descended through Manu, Ikshvaku, Harischandra, Raghu, Dasaratha and Rama.

2.     Chandravanshi: or Somavanshies (the clans of the lunar dynasty), descended through Yayati, Deva Nausha, Puru, Yadu, Kuru, Pandu, Yudhisthira and Krishna.

The Yaduvanshi lineage are a major sub-branch of the Chandravanshi lineage. Lord Krishna was born a Yaduvanshi.

The Puruvanshi lineage are a major sub-branch of the Chandravanshi Rajputs. The Kauravs and Pandavs of the epic Mahabharata were Puruvanshis.

3.     Agnivanshi: The Agniculas (the clans of the fire dynasty), descended from Agnipala, Swatcha, Mallan, Gulunsur, Ajpala and Dola Rai.

Each of these Vanshas or lineages is divided into several clans (kula), all of whom claim direct patrilineage from a remote but common male ancestor who supposedly belonged to that Vansha. Some of these 36 main clans are further subdivided into shakhas or “branches”, again based on the same principle of patrilineage.

Rise and Fall of Rajput dynasty

The Rajputs emerged into political importance as early as the 7th century. From about 800, Rajput dynasties dominated northern India, and the many petty Rajput kingdoms there were among the main obstacles to the complete Muslim domination of Hindu India. In the early 1020s the Rajput rulers at Gwalior and Kalinjar were able to hold off assaults by Maḥmūd of Ghazna (present-day Ghaznī, Afghanistan), although the two cities did pay him tribute.

1. The Rajputs were always fighting with each other and never united even against a common foe.

2. The feudal system proved disastrous for the Rajputs.

3. The Rajputs were not conversant with the latest warfare techniques and their mode of fighting and weapons were outdated.

4. The caste system prevalent amongst them gave rise to mutual jealousies. The defence of the country also rested only in the hands of Kshatriyas.

5. The Rajputs’ love for frightening neutralized their resources. They were forever fighting with their neighbors.

UNIT II:

INDIAN CULTURE

(Definition, Characteristics of Indian culture, Significance of Geography on Indian Culture)

“According to UNESCO, culture is usually “Interpreted as art, we speak of culture in connection with behaviour of people in the moral values and human relations. We denote if by action, behaviour and attitudes considered useful for the interests of society or of a certain social group. We mean standard of living, of habitation and clothing, of physical culture.

Difference between Culture and Civilization:

BASIS FOR COMPARISON	CULTURE	CIVILIZATION
Meaning	Culture is a term used to denote the manifestation of the manner in which we think, behave and act.	Civilization refers to the process through which a region or society, outstretches an advanced stage of human development and organization.
What is it?	End	Means
Represents	What we are?	What we possess?
Reflected in	Religion, art, dance, literature, customs, morals, music, philosophy, etc.	Law, administration, infrastructure, architecture, social arrangement, etc.
Expression	Higher level of inner refinement.	Higher level of general development.
Advancement	No	Yes
Interdependency	Culture can grow and exist without civilization.	Civilization cannot grow and exist without culture.

Parts or components of culture

(i)              Cultural Traits: Cultural traits are the single elements or smallest units of a culture. It is these traits which distinguish one culture from another.They are the “units of observation” which when put together constitute culture.

Any culture can be seen as to include thousands of such units. Thus shaking hands, touching the feet, tipping hats, the kiss on the forehead, giving seats to ladies first, saluting the flag, wearing white ‘saris’ at mourning, taking vegetarian diets, walking bare-footed, sprinkling water on the idols, carrying ‘kirpans’, growing beard and hair, eating in brass utensils, etc. are cultural traits.

(ii)            Culture Complex: It is larger clusters of traits organised about some nuclear point of reference.” Culture traits, as we know, do not usually appear singly or independently. They are customarily associated with other related traits to form culture complex. The importance of a single trait is indicated when it fits into a cluster of traits, each one of which performs a significant role in the total complex. Thus, kneeling before the idol, sprinkling sacred water over it, putting some food in its mouth, folding hands, taking ‘Prashad’ from the priest and singing ‘arti’ form a religious complex.

(iii)           Culture Pattern: A culture pattern is formed when traits and complexes become related to each other in functional roles. Each culture complex has a role to play in society. It has got definite place within it. The culture pattern of a society consists of a number of culture complexes. Thus the Indian cultural pattern consists of spiritualism, joint family/caste system and ruralism. Each of these is a culture complex consisting of numerous culture traits. According to Clark Wissler there are nine basic culture traits which give rise to culture pattern. They are Speech and Language, Material traits, Food habits, Shelter, Transportation, Dress, Utensils, tools etc. Weapons, Occupations and industries Art, Mythology and Scientific knowledge, Religious Practices, Family and Social Systems, Property, Government, War.

Sub-cultures: Sub-cultures are the cultural traits of a particular group or category. They are of course related ‘to the general culture of the society, yet are distinguishable from it. Thus, the cultures of occupational groups, religious groups, caste, social Class, age group, sex group and many others are Sub-cultures. The Hindu culture is a sub-culture of Indian culture.

Contra Cultures: The term contra culture is applied to designate those groups which not only differ from the prevailing patterns but sharply challenge them.

Cultural Area: The societies having similar cultural traits and complexes constitute culture area. Such societies are generally those which live in similar natural environment.

III. The Evolution of Culture: For a century and more archaeologists have dug up the tools, weapons, pottery, idols, coins and other material things of peoples who have long since died out, in search of clues to their social life. Such evidences, however, do not reveal the origin of culture; they only indicate its antiquity. If they reveal something about the evolution of culture, it is only about its material aspect. To trace the origin of a specific cultural trait is difficult.

IV. Variability of Culture:

We defined culture as the acquired behaviour of a group. If it is so then it means that there will be as many cultures as groups. Culture is a distinctive character of a nation, of a group or a period of history.

Factors of Cultural Variability:

(i)              Historical Accidents: Some of the customs whose origin is difficult to trace must have been originated due to some personal or group unconscious behaviour. A man might have done unconsciously a particular action; others imitated him and through imitation by and large it became a custom, a part of culture.

(ii)            Geographical Environment: In India snake worship is due to the abundance of reptiles; the marriage dates are fixed according to the harvesting time and agricultural pursuits of the people.

(iii)           Mobility of human organism: It is because human organism is flexible and mobile that there is cultural variability; Man has always adjusted himself to his natural environment.

(iv)           Inventions and Discoveries: Inventions and discoveries alt bring about cultural variability. The influence of technological factors of social change and there we showed how advancement affects our traditions, custom beliefs and faith.

(v)            Individual Peculiarities or Personal Eccentricities: Sometimes individual peculiarities or personal eccentricities al: influence cultural behaviour.

(vi)           Change in the Modes of Production: Any change in the mode of production affects the culture. The culture of capitalistic countries differs from that of socialistic countries.

Culture Important to the Individual:

For the individual culture has got a great value. It forms an important element in his social life.

(i) Culture makes man a human being: It is culture that makes the human animal a man, regulates his conduct and prepares him for group life. It provides to him a complete design for living. It teaches him what type of food he should take and in what manner, how he should cover himself and behave with his fellows, how he should speak with the people and how he should co­operate or compete with others. An individual abstracted from culture is less than human, he is what we call a feral man. The individual to be truly human, must participate in the cultural stream. Just as it is necessary that fish must live in water, so it is necessary and natural that man must live within a cultural framework. In short, the qualities required to live a social life are acquired by man from his culture. Without it he would have been forced to find his own way which would have meant a loss of energy in satisfying his elementary needs.

(ii) Culture provides solutions for complicated situations: Secondly, culture provides man with a set of behaviour even for complicated situations. IL has so thoroughly influenced him that often he does not require any external force Lo keep himself in conformity with social requirements. His actions become automatic, e.g., forming a queue when there is rush at the booking-window or driving left in the busy streets.

(iii) Culture provides traditional interpretations to certain situations: Lastly, through culture man gets traditional interpretations for many situations according to which he determines his behaviour. If a cat crosses his way he postpones the journey. If he sees an owl at the top of the house, he regards it as inauspicious. It may, however, be noted that these traditional interpretations differ from culture lo culture. Among some culture the owl is regarded a symbol of wisdom and not a symbol of idiocy.

For the Group:

(i) Culture keeps social relationships intact: Culture has importance not only for man but also for the group. Had there been no culture there would have been no group life. Culture is the design and the prescription, the composite of guiding values and ideals. By regulating the behaviour of the people and satisfying their primary drives pertaining to hunger, shelter and sex it has been able to maintain group life.

Indeed, life would have been poor, nasty, brutish and short if there had been no cultural regulations. People behave the way in society because their behaviour does not meet with social disapproval. Culture has provided a number of checks upon irrational conduct and suggestibility.

Cultural aids such as schooling or scientific training lessen the chances that a man will behave irrationally or irresponsibly. The members of the group characterized though they be by a consciousness of kind, are al once competing with one another for the good things of this life and for status. They are held in line by constraints prescribed by culture. So it is culture, which has kepi social relationships intact. Group solidarity rests on the foundation of culture.

(ii) Culture broadens the vision of the individual: Secondly, culture has given a new vision to the individual by providing him a set of rules for the co-operation of the individuals. He thinks not only of his own self but also of others. Culture teaches him to think of himself a part of the larger whole. It provides him with the concepts of family, slate, nation and class and makes possible the coordination and division of labour. It creates in him spirit de corps.

(iii) Culture creates new needs: Lastly, culture also creates new needs and new drives, for example, thirst for knowledge, and arranges for their satisfaction. It satisfies the aesthetic, moral and religious interests of the members of the group. In this way groups also owe much Lo culture. Any change in cultural valuations will have wide repercussions on the personally of the individual and structure of the group.

VI. Cultural Diffusion: Cultural diffusion is the process by which the cultural traits invented or discovered in one society are spread directly or indirectly to other societies. Ordinarily, diffusion is thought of as a movement of traits through space. It is different from transmission of culture which is movement of traits through time that is, from generation to generation. Although the exact origin of a specific cultural trait is difficult to trace, the diffusion of a trait can fairly be traced. Historically, more is known about diffusion than origin of culture.

factors influe of diffusion:

       i.          Availability of transportation and communication;

     ii.          Resistance to cultural changes, such as taboo, sense of superiority, and general cultural inertia;

   iii.          Prestige of the diffused culture and its people;

   iv.          Conquest of one people by another;

     v.          Migration;

   vi.          The need for some new element to meet a crisis;

 vii.          Adaptability of the recipients of the new culture.

About Indian culture

The Indian culture is composite in character which exhibits a synthesis of Hindu and Islamic traditions. India has witnessed one of the most expensive experiments in cultural cross-fertilization spanning over five millennia. The Hindus visit muslim shrines and likewise the Hindu places of pilgrimage are visited by muslims.

The Sufis drew Muslims and Hindus Lo the their fold with their message of love, compassion and brother-hood. The Indian culture transcends narrow religious and sectarian altitudes as is evident in music, literature and art. Despite increased communal polarisation, India’s composite culture has not lost its vitality.

CIVILIZATION AND GEOGRAPHY

Geography or the study of the land features, human settlement, and civilization itself - is, it's easy to imagine, incredibly important to the way in which human societies are scattered, and even where human civilization began. For example, the four places where humans first began settling were along sources of fresh water: Mesopotamia, along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in modern Iraq; in India along the Indus River; in China along the Yangtze River and Yellow River; and in Egypt along the Nile.

All of these civilizations grew up where they did not because the humans who lived near the rivers were that much smarter than in other regions, but because of the area's geography. These large, freshwater rivers were a ready source of water and also provided a ready source of food, as seasonal flooding provided fertile soil for growing crops. With the ability to grow crops and a surplus of food, and with water nearby, there was no longer a need to move from place to place in search of resources. Furthermore, without every minute of the day being devoted to finding food, ancient humans could now devote themselves to more leisurely pursuits, like contemplating life (i.e., religion) and developing plans and methods to organize their relationships with other humans (i.e., civilization and government). These rivers and the geography of the ancient world did not necessarily cause the birth of civilization, but it certainly dictated where it took place.

INDIA - GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES AND THEIR IMPACT ON CULTURE

Geography of India has affected the course of her history and culture in several ways. The spirit of tolerance has been nurtured and fostered both, directly and indirectly by India`s geography. The vastness of the land and its climate has influenced the Indian mind. This has prepared in the mind a readiness to accept difference. The vast spaces offered room for slow infiltration by newcomers and allowed each locality, unhampered scope of development along its own lines. Indian climate generally makes one lethargic.

India`s geographical isolation and natural frontiers have given her sense of unity. The internal cohesion is matched by India`s sharp differentiation from all external lands. Nature has generously endowed her boundaries which has all the resources that man needs for a civilised and creative life. Common economic organisation has led to the development of common characteristics and a common outlook.

The geography of India explains the fundamental basis of Indian culture, unity amidst diversity. Simultaneously Indians have a genuine love of the soil and its fauna and flora, its rivers, mountains and valleys, its teeming life and ceaseless activity. It roused a geographical consciousness, a realisation of the territorial basis of the life of society. The religious culture is rooted to the soil. Geography and culture are intimately related. The conception of motherland was expressed by the name BHARAT VARSHA name for the whole country. It was regarded as the Karmabhumi, the land with which all the efforts and activities of the Indians must be connected.

The Indian subcontinent is a well - defined geographical unit. It may be divided into three major regions: the Himalayan Mountains, the Indo-Gangetic plains and the Southern Peninsula. There are five countries in the subcontinent - India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan. India is the largest among them and it comprises twenty-nine states and seven Union Territories. According to the 2011 Census, the population of India is over 121 crores.

India - A Land of Unity in Diversity

The history of ancient India is interesting because India proved to be a melting pot of numerous races. The pre-Aryans, the Indo-Aryans, the Greeks, the Scythians, the Hunas, the Turks, etc., made India their home. Each ethnic group contributed its might to the making of Indian culture. All these peoples mixed up so inextricably with one another that at present none of them can be identified in their original form. Different cultures mingled with one another through the ages. Many pre-Aryan or Dravidian terms occur in the Vedic texts. Similarly, many Pali and Sanskritic terms appear in the Sangam literature.

Since ancient times, India has been the land of several religions. Ancient India witnessed the birth of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. But all these cultures and religions intermingled with one another. Although Indians people speak different languages, practice different religions, and observe different social customs, they follow certain common styles of life throughout the country. Therefore, our country shows a deep underlying unity in spite of great diversity.

In fact, the ancients strove for unity. They looked upon this vast subcontinent as one land. The name Bharatavarsha or the land of Bharata was given to the whole country, after the name of an ancient tribe called the Bharatas. Our ancient poets, philosophers and writers viewed the country as an integral unit. This kind of political unity was attained at least twice during the Mauryan and Gupta Empires.

The unity of India was also recognized by foreigners. They first came into contact with the people living on the Sindhu or the Indus, and so they named the whole country after this river. The word Hind is derived from the Sanskrit term Sindhu, and in course of time the country came to be known as 'India’ in Greek, and ‘Hind’ in Persian and Arabic languages.

Efforts for the linguistic and cultural unity of the country were made through the ages. In the third century B.C., Prakrit language served as the lingua franca of the country. Throughout the major portion of India, Asoka’s inscriptions were written in the Prakrit language. Also, the ancient epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, were studied with the same zeal and devotion throughout the country. Originally composed in Sanskrit, these epics came to be presented in different local languages. Although the Indian cultural values and ideas were expressed in different forms, the substance remained the same throughout the country.

Hence, India has emerged a multi-religious and multi-cultural society. However, the underlying unity and integrity and the plural character of Indian society remain the real strength for the development of the country.

UNIT III: SOCIETY & IT’S EVOLUTION

(Society in India through ages- Ancient period- Varna and Jati, Family and Marriage in India, Caste system and communalism

Religion and Philosophy in India: Vedic Religion, Buddhism an  `d Jainism)

The four divisions of society (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras) or the Varna system was thoroughly established during the Later Vedic period. The two higher classes - Brahmana, and Kshatriya enjoyed privileges that were denied to the Vaisya and Sudra. A Brahmin occupied a higher position than a Kshatriya but sometimes Kshatriyas claimed a higher status over the Brahmins. Many sub-castes on the basis of their occupation appeared in this period.

In the family, the power of the father increased during the Later Vedic period. There was no improvement in the status of women. They were still considered inferior and subordinate to men. Women also lost their political rights of attending assemblies. Child marriages had become common. According the Aitreya Brahmana a daughter has been described as a source of misery. However, the women in the royal household enjoyed certain privileges.

The sixth century B.C. is considered a wonderful century in history. Great thinkers like Buddha, Mahavira, Heraclitus, Zoroaster, Confucius and Lao Tse lived and preached their ideas in this century. In India, the republican institutions were strong in the 6th century B.C. This enabled rise of heterodox sects against the orthodox religion dominated by rites and rituals. Among them the most successful were Jainism and Buddhism whose impact on the Indian society was remarkable.

India's Religion and Philosophy

With the origins of Hinduism and Buddhism in India, religion is considered to be extremely important.  Of the two religions, Hinduism is infinitely more popular, with an incredible 82 percent of the population practicing it.  Within this majority, there are significant differences in the belief systems and caste divisions.  Although there is division in some areas of Hinduism, there are many areas in common.   They will all go to the pilgrimage sites, coming from all over India and will- if they go to a Brahman priest for birth, marriage and/or death rituals- hear the same Sanskrit verses from hundreds of years ago. In the shadow of Hindu dominance, there are a few followers of other beliefs such as jain, Sikh and Buddhism. 

In India, religion is a way of life. It is an integral part of the entire Indian tradition. For the majority of Indians, religion permeates every aspect of life, from common-place daily chores to education and politics. Secular India is home to Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and other innumerable religious traditions. Hinduism is the dominant faith, practiced by over 80% of the population. Besides Hindus, Muslims are the most prominent religious group and are an integral part of Indian society. In fact India has the second largest population of Muslims in the world after Indonesia.

Common practices have crept into most religious faiths in India and many of the festivals that mark each year with music, dance and feasting are shared by all communities. Each has its own pilgrimage sites, heroes, legends and even culinary specialties, mingling in a unique diversity that is the very pulse of society.

Hinduism: The underlying tenets of Hinduism cannot be easily defined. There is no unique philosophy that forms the basis of the faith of the majority of India's population. Hinduism is perhaps the only religious tradition that is so diversified in its theoretical premises and practical expressions as to be called a "museum of religions". This religion cannot be traced to a specific founder nor does it have a "holy book" as a basic scriptural guide. The Rig Veda, Upanishads and the Bhagwad Gita can all be described as the sacred text of the Hindus.

Unlike most other religions, Hinduism does not advocate the worship of one particular deity. One may worship Shiva or Vishnu or Rama or Krishna or some other gods and goddesses or one may believe in the 'Supreme Spirit' or the 'Indestructible Soul' within each individual and still be called a good Hindu. This gives an indication of the kind of contrasts this religion is marked by. At one end of the scale, it is an exploration of the 'Ultimate Reality'; at the other end there are cults that worship spirits, trees and animals.

There are festivals and ceremonies associated not only with gods and goddesses but also with the sun, moon, planets, rivers, oceans, trees and animals. Some of the popular Hindu festivals are Deepawali, Holi, Dussehra, Ganesh Chaturthi, Pongal, Janamasthmi and Shiva Ratri. These innumerable festive occasions lend Hinduism its amazing popular appeal and make the Indian tradition rich and colorful.

Hindu Mythology and the Living Gods: Heroes of epics like the Mahabharata and the Ramayana are immortalized and are still alive in the day-to-day existence of the common people. The gods of Hinduism are at once super-human and human and there is distinct feeling of warmth and familiarity towards them.

Rama, the hero of the Ramayana, represents qualities such as honor, courage and valor and is held up as a model of manliness. His wife Sita is the prototypal Indian wife who is carried off by Ravana, the king of Lanka, while Rama and Sita are on exile. Sita's eventual rescue by Rama, his brother Lakshmana, and Rama's faithful monkey-general Hanuman are all woven into this engrossing tale. Stories from this epic have been passed down orally from one generation to the next. Religious fairs, festivals and rituals have kept these legends alive, and there is never an occasion that does not offer an opportunity to retell the old stories.

The stirring verses of the Mahabharata tell the story of the dynastic struggle between the Pandavas and the Kauravas, who were close cousins. Lord Krishna plays a very important role in this Great Epic. He is a friend, philosopher and guide to Arjuna, one of the Pandavas, and he helps Arjuna overcome his hesitation to kill his close relatives in the battlefield. The wise philosophy of Krishna and his teachings have been embodied in the Bhagwad Gita. Although the popular image of Krishna is that of a god who steals butter as a child, and who, as a youth, plays the flute and entices cows and cowherd girls alike; in his mature years he is depicted as the wise philosopher with a more serious side to his nature.

There are numerous gods and goddesses worshipped by Hindus all over India. Among these, the most fundamental to Hinduism, is the trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva - creator, preserver and destroyer respectively. Brahma has four heads corresponding to the four directions of the compass. He is the creator of life and the entire universe. Vishnu is the preserver who guides the cycle of birth and rebirth. He is also supposed to have taken many incarnations to save the world from evil forces. Both Rama and Krishna are believed to have been incarnations of Vishnu. Shiva, usually seen with a coiled cobra around his neck, destroys all evil and also has many incarnations, not all of which are terrifying.

The invisible deities are represented by a complexity of images and idols symbolizing divine powers. Many of these idols are housed within ornate temples of unparalleled beauty and grandeur. The Hindu gods are very much alive and live in temples, snow-capped peaks, in rivers and oceans and in the very hearts and minds of the Hindus.

Sikhism: The Sikh religion emerged during the early 16th century in the state of Punjab in North India. The founder of this faith was Guru Nanak, who from his childhood was attracted to both Hindu and Muslim saints. Born a Hindu, but also inspired by the teachings of Islam, he began to preach the message of unity of both religions. According to him, the basic teachings of both faiths were essentially the same. Nanak attracted many followers and came to be known as a Guru or a teacher. His disciples came together to form a new religious tradition called Sikhism.

The Gurus who followed Nanak contributed to the consolidation and spread of Sikhism. The teachings of Guru Nanak were incorporated in the 'Guru Granth Sahib', the Holy Book of the Sikhs which became a symbol of God for Sikhs. The fifth Guru, Guru Arjun built the Golden Temple at Amritsar which became the holiest of Sikh shrines. The tenth Guru, Govind Singh imparted military training to the Sikhs to help them defend themselves.

On Baisakhi day of 1699 at Anandpur, Guru Govind Singh ordered his Sikhs to assemble before him as was customary and created a new brotherhood of Sikhs called the Khalsa (Pure Ones). Five men selected for their devotion to the Guru were called Panj Pyares and given nectar (amrit) for initiation into the brotherhood of Khalsa. Later the Guru himself received initiation from Panj Payares as did others.

The members of the new brotherhood were instructed to wear the five symbols (the five Ks )- uncut hair, a comb, a steel wrist guard, a sword and breeches. The initiated men took the name Singh (Lion) and the women Kaur (Princess). The Guru also decided to terminate the succession of gurus and was thus the last of the Sikh Gurus.

Sikhism propounds monotheism, i.e. worship of one God. It also opposes the caste system and believes that all men are equal. However the ideas of karma and rebirth from Hinduism are accepted. Today, many Sikh practices are common to Hindus. Intermarriages between the two communities are also common. However the Sikh community has its own unmistakable identity. Though the Sikhs constitute less than 2 percent of the Indian population, they have become a distinct element in the configuration of the Indian religious tradition and the Indian society.

Buddhism: Buddhism originated as an offshoot of Hinduism in India, but eventually it became popular all over Asia. The personality and teachings of Gautam Buddha, the founder of this faith, have illumined the lives of millions of people in Japan, China and Southeast Asia.

There are strong lines of similarity between Buddhism and the basic teachings of Hinduism. Buddhism is based on the principle or the law of impermanence. According to this, everything is subject to change, although some things may last longer than others. The other basic principle of Buddhism is the law of causation, according to which nothing occurs due to pure chance. Besides natural forces, it is the karma which leads to the occurrence of all events. The popular notions of the indestructible soul and the cycle of rebirth emerge from these two basic philosophies.

Buddha advocated the Middle Path, in which he offered a balanced, harmonious way of life, steering between two extremes of self-indulgence and total abstinence. Buddhism rests upon four Noble Truths: (i) suffering is universal, (ii) it is caused by desire and yearning (iii) suffering can be prevented and overcome and (iv) eradication of desires can lead to removal of suffering. To prevent suffering one has to conquer craving and desire and this conquest leads to the attainment of nirvana or complete enlightenment.

Jainism: Jainism as a religious tradition was established in India about the same time as Buddhism. Mahavira, one of the jinas (conquerors) preached the Jain philosophy around the same time that Buddhism began.

Like Buddhism, Jainism rose against the corruption in the interpretation of Hinduism prevalent at the time. The underlying philosophy of Jainism is that renunciation of worldly desires and self-conquest leads to perfect wisdom. This faith believes in total abstinence and asceticism as practiced by the Jinas and the Tirthankars ("crossing-makers"). The "crossing refers to the passage from the material to the spiritual realm, from bondage to freedom. Followers of this faith accept the popular gods of Hinduism but they are placed lower than the jinas.

The focus of this religion has been purification of the soul by means of right conduct, right faith and right knowledge. This faith also enunciates complete non-violence and the Jain monks can be seen with their nose and mouth covered by a cloth mask to ensure that they do not kill any germs or insects while breathing. Today, Jainism has more than 3 million adherents in India and finds wide acceptance because of its philosophy of sympathy for all living beings.

Causes for the Rise of Jainism and Buddhism

The primary cause for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism was the religious unrest in India in the 6th century B.C. The complex rituals and sacrifices advocated in the Later Vedic period were not acceptable to the common people. The sacrificial ceremonies were also found to be too expensive. The superstitious beliefs and mantras confused the people. The teachings of Upanishads, an alternative to the system of sacrifices, were highly philosophical in nature and therefore not easily understood by all. Therefore, what was needed in the larger interests of the people was a simple, short and intelligible way to salvation for all people. Such religious teaching should also be in a language known to them. This need was fulfilled by the teachings of Buddha and Mahavira.

Other than the religious factor, social and economic factors also contributed to the rise of these two religions. The rigid caste system prevalent in India generated tensions in the society. Higher classes enjoyed certain privileges which were denied to the lower classes. Also, the Kshatriyas had resented the domination of the priestly class. It should also to be noted that both Buddha and Mahavira belonged to Kshatriya origin. The growth of trade led to the improvement in the economic conditions of the Vaisyas. As a result, they wanted to enhance their social status but the orthodox Varna system did not allow this. Therefore, they began to extend support to Buddhism and Jainism. It was this merchant class that extended the chief support to these new religions.

Teachings of Mahavira: The three principles of Jainism, also known as Triratnas (three gems), are:

ü  right faith

ü  right knowledge

ü  right conduct.

Right faith is the belief in the teachings and wisdom of Mahavira. Right Knowledge is the acceptance of the theory that there is no God and that the world has been existing without a creator and that all objects possess a soul. Right conduct refers to the observance of the five great vows:

1.     not to injure life

2.     not to lie

3.     not to steal

4.     not to acquire property

5.     not to lead immoral life.

Both the clergy and laymen had to strictly follow the doctrine of ahimsa. Mahavira regarded all objects, both animate and inanimate, have souls and various degrees of consciousness. They possess life and feel pain when they are injured. Mahavira rejected the authority of the Vedas and objected to the Vedic rituals. He advocated a very holy and ethical code of life. Even the practice of agriculture was considered sinful as it causes injury to the earth, worms and animals. Similarly the doctrine of asceticism and renunciation was also carried to extreme lengths by the practice of starvation, nudity and other forms of self-torture.

Spread of Jainism: Mahavira organised the Sangha to spread his teachings. He admitted both men and women in the Sangha, which consisted of both monks and lay followers. The rapid spread of Jainism was due to the dedicated work of the members of the Sangha. It spread rapidly in Western India and Karnataka. Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela of Kalinga and the royal dynasties of south India such as the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas patronized Jainism.

By the end of the fourth century B.C., there was a serious famine in the Ganges valley. Many Jain monks led by Bhadrabagu and Chandragupta Maurya came to Sravana Belgola in Karnataka. Those who stayed back in north India were led by a monk named Sthulabahu who changed the code of conduct for the monks. This led to the division of Jainism into two sects Svetambaras (whiteclad) and Digambaras (Skyclad or Naked).

The first Jain Council was convened at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu, the leader of the Digambaras, in the beginning of the 3rd century B.C. The second Jain Council was held at Valabhi in 5th century A.D. The final compilation of Jain literature called Twelve Angas was completed in this council.

Teachings of Buddha: The Four Noble Truths of Buddha are:

ü  The truth of suffering (dukkha)

ü  The truth of the cause of suffering (samudaya)

ü  The truth of the end of suffering (nirhodha)

ü  The truth of the path that frees us from suffering (magga)

The Eightfold Path: The Eightfold Path is composed of eight primary teachings that Buddhists follow and use in their everyday lives:

1.     Right View or Right Understanding: Insight into the true nature of reality

2.     Right Intention: The unselfish desire to realize enlightenment

3.     Right Speech: Using speech compassionately

4.     Right Action: Using ethical conduct to manifest compassion

5.     Right Livelihood: Making a living through ethical and nonharmful means

6.     Right Effort: Cultivating wholesome qualities and releasing unwholesome qualities

7.     Right Mindfulness: Whole body-and-mind awareness

8.     Right Concentration: Meditation or some other dedicated, concentrated practice

Spread of Buddhism

Buddha had two kinds of disciples - monks (bhikshus) and lay worshippers (upasikas). The monks were organized into the Sangha for the purpose of spreading his teachings. The membership was open to all persons, male or female and without any caste restrictions. There was a special code for nuns restricting their residence and movement. Sariputta, Moggallana and Ananda were some of the famous monks. The Sangha was governed on democratic lines and was empowered to enforce discipline among its members. Owing to the organised efforts made by the Sangha, Buddhism made rapid progress in North India even during Buddha’s life time. Magadha, Kosala, Kausambi and several republican states of North India embraced this religion. About two hundred years after the death of Buddha, the famous Mauryan Emperor Asoka embraced Buddhism. Through his missionary effort Asoka spread Buddhism into West Asia and Ceylon. Thus a local religious sect was transformed into a world religion.

Causes for the Decline of Buddhism in India

The revival of Brahmanism and the rise of Bhagavatism led to the fall of popularity of Buddhism. The use of Pali, the language of the masses as the language of Buddhism was given up from the 1st century A.D. The Buddhists began to adopt Sanskrit, the language of the elite. After the birth of Mahayana Buddhism, the practice of idol worship and making offerings led to the deterioration of moral standards. Moreover, the attack of the Huns in 5th and 6th centuries and the Turkish invaders in 12th century destroyed the monasteries. All these factors contributed to the decline of Buddhism in India.

Contribution of Buddhism to Indian Culture

Buddhism has made a remarkable contribution to the development of Indian culture.

- The concept of ahimsa was its chief contribution. Later, it became one of the cherished values of our nation.

- Its contribution to the art and architecture of India was notable. The stupas at Sanchi, Bharhut and Gaya are wonderful pieces of architecture. Buddhism takes the credit for the chaityas and viharas in different parts of India.

- It promoted education through residential universities like those at Taxila, Nalanda and Vikramasila.

- The language of Pali and other local languages developed through the teachings of Buddhism.

- It had also promoted the spread of Indian culture to other parts of Asia.

VARNA, JATI and CASTE SYSTEM

Ancient India in the Vedic Period (c. 1500-1000 BCE) did not have social stratification based on socio-economic indicators; rather, citizens were classified according to their Varna or castes. 'Varna' defines the hereditary roots of a new born, it indicates the colour, type, order or class of people. Four principal categories are defined: Brahmins (priests, gurus, etc.), Kshatriyas (warriors, kings, administrators, etc.), Vaishyas (agriculturalists, traders, etc., also called Vysyas), and Shudras (labourers). Each Varna propounds specific life principles to follow; newborns are required to follow the customs, rules, conduct, and beliefs fundamental to their respective Varnas.

The first mention of Varna is found in the Purusha Suktam verse of the ancient Sanskrit Rig Veda. Purusha is the primordial being, constituted by the combination of the four Varnas. Brahmins constitute its mouth, Kshatriyas its arms, Vaishyas its thighs, and Shudras its feet. Likewise, a society, too, is constituted by these four Varnas, who, through their obedience to the Varna rules, are provisioned to sustain prosperity and order. A newborn in a specific Varna is not mandatorily required to obey its life principles; individual interests and personal inclinations are attended upon with equal solemnity, so as to uproot the conflict between personal choice and customary rules. Given this liberty, a deviated choice is always assessed for its cascading impact on others. The rights of each Varna citizen are always equated with their individual responsibilities. An elaborated Varna system with insights and reasoning is found in the Manu Smriti (an ancient legal text from the Vedic Period), and later in various Dharma Shastras. Varnas, in principle, are not lineages, considered as pure and indisputable, but categories, thus inferring the precedence of conduct in determining a Varna instead of birth.

Purpose of the VARNA System

The caste system in ancient India had been executed and acknowledged during, and ever since, the Vedic period that thrived around 1500-1000 BCE. The segregation of people based on their Varna was intended to decongest the responsibilities of one's life, preserve the purity of a caste, and establish eternal order. This would pre-resolve and avoid all forms of disputes originating from conflicts within business and encroachment on respective duties. In this system, specific tasks are designated to each Varna citizen. A Brahmin behaving as a Kshatriya or a Vaishya debases himself, becoming unworthy of seeking liberation or moksha. For a Brahmin (having become one by deed, in addition to the one by birth) is considered the society’s mouth, and is the purest life form as per the Vedas, because he personifies renunciation, austerity, piousness, striving only for wisdom and cultivated intellect. A Kshatriya, too, is required to remain loyal to his Varna duty; if he fails, he could be outcast. The same applies to Vaishyas and Shudras. Shudras, far from left out or irrelevant, are the base of an economy, a strong support system of a prosperous economic system, provided they remain confined to their life duties and not give in to greed, immoral conduct, and excess self-indulgence.

THE UNDERLYING REASON FOR ADHERING TO VARNA DUTIES IS THE BELIEF IN THE ATTAINMENT OF MOKSHA ON BEING DUTIFUL.

The main idea is that such order in a society would lead to contentment, perpetual peace, wilful adherence to law, wilful deterrence from all misconduct, responsible exercise of liberty and freedom, and keeping the fundamental societal trait of ‘shared prosperity’ above all others. Practical and moral education of all Varnas and such order seemed justified in ancient Indian society owing to different Varnas living together and the possibility of disunity among them. Hence, Brahmins were entrusted with the duty of educating pupils of all Varnas to understand and practice order and mutual harmony, regardless of distressed circumstances. Justice, moral, and righteous behaviour were primary teachings in Brahmins’ ashrams (spiritual retreats, places to seek knowledge). Equipping pupils with a pure conscience to lead a noble life was considered essential and so was practical education to all Varnas, which provided students with their life purposes and knowledge of right conduct, which would manifest later into an orderly society.

Brahmins: Brahmins were revered as an incarnation of knowledge itself, endowed with the precepts and sermons to be discharged to all Varnas of society. They were not just revered because of their Brahmin birth but also their renunciation of worldly life and cultivation of divine qualities, assumed to be always engrossed in the contemplation of Brahman, hence called Brahmins. Priests, gurus, rishis, teachers, and scholars constituted the Brahmin community. They would always live through the Brahmacharya (celibacy) vow ordained for them. Even married Brahmins were called Brahmachari (celibate) by virtue of having intercourse only for reproducing and remaining mentally detached from the act. However, anyone from other Varnas could also become a Brahmin after extensive acquisition of knowledge and cultivation of one’s intellect.

Brahmins were the foremost choice as tutors for the newborn because they represent the link between sublime knowledge of the gods and the four Varnas. This way, since the ancestral wisdom is sustained through guru-disciple practice, all citizens born in each Varna would remain rooted to the requirements of their lives. Normally, Brahmins were the personification of contentment and dispellers of ignorance, leading all seekers to the zenith of supreme knowledge, however, under exceptions, they lived as warriors, traders, or agriculturists in severe adversity. The ones bestowed with the titles of Brahma Rishi or Maha Rishi were requested to counsel kings and their kingdoms’ administration. All Brahmin men were allowed to marry women of the first three Varnas, whereas marrying a Shudra woman would, marginally, bereft the Brahmin of his priestly status. Nevertheless, a Shudra woman would not be rejected if the Brahmin consented.

Brahmin women, contrary to the popular belief of their subordination to their husbands, were, in fact, more revered for their chastity and treated with unequalled respect. As per Manu Smriti, a Brahmin woman must only marry a Brahmin and no other, but she remains free to choose the man. She, under rare circumstances, is allowed to marry a Kshatriya or a Vaishya, but marrying a Shudra man is restricted. The restrictions in inter-caste marriages are to avoid subsequent impurity of progeny born of the matches. A man of a particular caste marrying a woman of a higher caste is considered an imperfect match, culminating in ignoble offspring.

Kshatriyas: Kshatriyas constituted the warrior clan, the kings, rulers of territories, administrators, etc. It was paramount for a Kshatriya to be learned in weaponry, warfare, penance, austerity, administration, moral conduct, justice, and ruling. All Kshatriyas would be sent to a Brahmin’s ashram from an early age until they became wholly equipped with requisite knowledge. Besides austerities like the Brahmins, they would gain additional knowledge of administration. Their fundamental duty was to protect their territory, defend against attacks, deliver justice, govern virtuously, and extend peace and happiness to all their subjects, and they would take counsel in matters of territorial sovereignty and ethical dilemmas from their Brahmin gurus. They were allowed to marry a woman of all Varnas with mutual consent. Although a Kshatriya or a Brahmin woman would be the first choice, Shudra women were not barred from marrying a Kshatriya.

Kshatriya women, like their male counterparts, were equipped with masculine disciplines, fully acquainted with warfare, rights to discharge duties in the king’s absence, and versed in the affairs of the kingdom. Contrary to popular belief, a Kshatriya woman was equally capable of defending a kingdom in times of distress and imparting warfare skills to her descendants. The lineage of a Kshatriya king was kept pure to ensure continuity on the throne and claim sovereignty over territories.

Vaishyas: Vaishya is the third Varna represented by agriculturalists, traders, money lenders, and those involved in commerce. Vaishyas are also the twice-born and go to the Brahmins’ ashram to learn the rules of a virtuous life and to refrain from intentional or accidental misconduct. Cattle rearing was one of the most esteemed occupations of the Vaishyas, as the possession and quality of a kingdom’s cows, elephants, horses, and their upkeep affected the quality of life and the associated prosperity of the citizens. Vaishyas would work in close coordination with the administrators of the kingdom to discuss, implement, and constantly upgrade the living standards by providing profitable economic prospects. Because their life conduct exposes them to objects of immediate gratification, their tendency to overlook the law and despise the weak is perceived as probable. Hence, the Kshatriya king would be most busy with resolving disputes originating of conflicts among Vaishyas.

Vaishya women, too, supported their husbands in business, cattle rearing, and agriculture, and shared the burden of work. They were equally free to choose a spouse of their choice from the four Varnas, albeit selecting a Shudra was earnestly resisted. Vaishya women enjoyed protection under the law, and remarriage was undoubtedly normal, just as in the other three Varnas. A Vaishya woman had equal rights over ancestral properties in case of the untimely death of her husband, and she would be equally liable for the upbringing of her children with support from her husband.

Shudras: The last Varna represents the backbone of a prosperous economy, in which they are revered for their dutiful conduct toward life duties set out for them. Scholarly views on Shudras are the most varied since there seemingly are more restrictions on their conduct. However, Atharva Veda allows Shudras to hear and learn the Vedas by heart, and the Mahabharata, too, supports the inclusion of Shudras in ashrams and their learning the Vedas. Becoming officiating priests in sacrifices organised by kings was, however, to a large extent restricted. Shudras are not the twice-born, hence not required to wear the sacred thread like the other Varnas. A Shudra man was only allowed to marry a Shudra woman, but a Shudra woman was allowed to marry from any of the four Varnas.

Shudras would serve the Brahmins in their ashrams, Kshatriyas in their palaces and princely camps, and Vaishyas in their commercial activities. Although they are the feet of the primordial being, learned citizens of higher Varnas would always regard them as a crucial segment of society, for an orderly society would be easily compromised if the feet are weak. Shudras, on the other hand, obeyed the orders of their masters, because their knowledge of attaining moksha by embracing their prescribed duties encouraged them to remain loyal. Shudra women, too, worked as attendants and close companions of the queen and would go with her after marriage to other kingdoms. Many Shudras were also allowed to be agriculturalists, traders, and enter occupations of Vaishyas. These detours of life duties would, however, be under special circumstances, on perceiving deteriorating economic situations. The Shudras’ selflessness makes them worthy of unprecedented regard and respect.

Gradual withdrawal from the ancient Varna duties

Despite the life order being arranged for all kinds of people, by the end of the Vedic period, many began to deflect and disobey their primary duties. Brahmins started to feel the authoritarian nature of their occupation and status, because of which arrogance seeped in. Many gurus, citing their advice-imparting position to Kshatriya kings, became unholy and deceitful by practising Shudra qualities. Although Brahmins are required only to live on alms and not seek more than their minimal subsistence, capitalising on their superior status and unquestioned hierarchical outreach, they began to demand more for conducting sacrifices.

Kshatriyas contested with other kings often to display their prowess and possessions. Many kings found it acceptable to reject their Brahmin guru’s advice and hence became self-regulating, taking unrighteous decisions, leading to loss of kingship, territory, and the confidence of the Vaishyas and Shudras. Vaishyas started to see themselves as powerful in their ownership of land and subjection of Shudras. Infighting, deceit, cheating influenced the conduct of Vaishyas. Shudras were repeatedly oppressed by the Kshatriyas and Vaishyas at will, which made them disown their duties and instead opt for stealing, lying, avariciousness, and spreading misinformation.

INDIA IS NOW HOME TO A REPOSITORY OF THE PRIMARY FOUR VARNAS & HUNDREDS OF SUB-VARNAS, MAKING THE ORIGINAL FOUR VARNAS MERELY ‘UMBRELLA TERMS’ & PERPETUALLY AMBIGUOUS.

Thus, all Varnas fell from their virtuosity, and unrighteous acts of one continued to inspire and justify similar acts of others. Mixing of castes was also considered a part of the declining interest in Varna system. Most of these changes took place between 1000 BCE and 500 BCE when constant social and economic complexities emerged as new challenges for Varna-based allocation of duties. Population increased, and so did the disunity of citizens in their collective belief in the sanctity of the original Varna system. Religious conversions played a significant part in subsuming large societies into the tenets of humanism and a single large society.

The period between 300 CE to 700 CE marked the intersection of multiple religions. As a large Varna populace became difficult to handle, the emergence of Jainism propounded the ideology of one single human Varna and nothing besides. Many followed the original Varna rules, but many others, disapproving opposing beliefs, formed modified sub-Varnas within the primary four Varnas. This process, occurring between 700 CE and 1500 CE, continues to this day, as India is now home to a repository of the primary four Varnas and hundreds of sub-Varnas, making the original four Varnas merely ‘umbrella terms’ and perpetually ambiguous.

The subsequent rise of Islam, Christianity, and other religions also left their mark on the original Varna system in India. Converted generations reformed their notion of Hinduism in ways that were compatible with the conditions of those times. The rise of Buddhism, too, left its significant footprint on the Varna system’s legitimate continuance in renewed conditions of life. Thus, soulful adherence to Varna duties from the peak of Vedic period eventually diminished to subjective makeshift adherence, owing partly to the discomfort in practising Varna duties and partly to external influence.

While the above impacts were gradual, expeditious withdrawal from Varna rules was made possible by the large-scale influence of western notions of liberty, equality, and freedom. These changes can be observed from 1500 CE right through the present. For Western nations, rooted in their own cultural background, it made little sense to approve of this in their eyes antiquated Varna system. Intercepting the Moghul invasion and the near-end sovereignty of multiple Hindu dynasties, British invasion brought with it a fresh worldview based on equality and freedom, incompatible with the Varna system. Massive colonisation, impact of ‘cultural imperialism’ enforced significant alterations on Varna duties. Trade and liberalisation, exchange of culture dented the tiny bit of belief left in continuing the Varna system.

Despite this perpetual decline, the descendants of all four Varnas in contemporary India are trying to reinvent their roots in search of ancestral wisdom. Although the four Varnas have encroached upon each other’s life duties, a sense of order and peace is sought and recalled in discourses, community gatherings, and engagement between different generations. Varna system in contemporary terms is followed either with earnest commitment without reservations and doubt or with ambiguity and resistance arising out of unprecedented external influence and issues of subjective incompatibility. While many citizens practice a diluted version of Varna system, extending its limitations and rigidness to a broader context of Hindu religion, staunch believers still strive and promote the importance of reclaiming the system.

Hindu Marriage: Concept, Types and Mate Selection:

Marriage is perceived by sociologists as a system of roles of a man and a woman whose union has been given social sanction as husband and wife. The equilibrium of the system requires adjustment between the two part­ners so that the role enactment of one partner) corresponds to the role expectations of the other.

Indologists look upon Hindu marriage as a sanskara, having three ob­jects of dharma (fulfillment of religious duties), rati (sex gratification), and praja (procreation). Marriage performed for dharma was called dharmik marriage, while one performed for sexual pleasure was regarded as adharmik marriage.

Marriage was considered sacred because of several reasons:

(i) Dharma was the highest aim of marriage;

(ii) Performance of marriage ceremony included certain rites (like havan, kanyadan, panigrahana, saptapadi, etc.) which were considered sacred;

(iii) Rites were performed before sacred god Agni by reciting mantras from sacred scriptures Vedas by a sa­cred Brahmin;

(iv) Union (between man and woman) was considered indissoluble and irrevocable; and

(v) Emphasis was on chastity of the woman and faithfulness of the man.

Even today, the sanctity of the mar­riage is recognised by Hindus in spite of the fact that marriage is performed for companionship and not for performing duties, and when­ever found a failure, it is dissolved by divorce. Mutual fidelity and devotion to partner are still considered to be the essence of marriage.

 “Hindu marriage continues to be a sacrament; only it is raised to an ethical plane.” In simple words, marriage in Hindu culture is a spiritual union be­tween a man and a woman for spiritual realisation. Hindu culture also recognises (besides the above-mentioned Brahma marriage) seven other forms of marriage with lesser and lower ideals.

The mate selection today involves three important issues: party to se­lection, criteria of selection, and field of selection. While earlier mates for children were selected by parents, now children believe in joint selection by parents and children, though cases of individual selection (i.e., selec­tion by children themselves) are not rare. The criteria of selecting mates by parents are quite different from those of children.

While parents give importance to family status, sanskaras, caste, dowry and so forth, children give importance to education, character, physical appearance, equipment and skills, etc. The joint selection today keeps in mind the needs of the family as well as the interests of the person acquiring a spouse. No won­der, studies of scholars like B.V. Shah, Margaret Cormack, Vimal Shah, etc. showed that a very large number of young boys and girls wanted to select their mates in consultation with their parents.

Changes in Hindu Marriage System:

Changes in marriage system among Hindus may be analysed in seven ar­eas: object of marriage, process of mate selection, form of marriage, age of marriage, economic aspect of marriage (dowry), stability of marriage (di­vorce), and widow remarriage. Of these, we have already discussed change in two areas in earlier pages, viz., change in the object of marriage (from dharma to companionship), and change in mate selection (party, criteria, and field of selection).

Change in the form of marriage refers to change from polygyny to monogamy and change in age of marriage points out change from pre-puberty marriages to post-puberty marriages. The re­maining three changes may be examined by analysing marriage legislation.

Marriage Legislation:

The laws enacted in India relate to:

(i) Age at marriage,

(ii) Field of mate se­lection,

(iii) Number of spouses in marriage,

(iv) Dissolving marriage,

(v) Dowry, and

(vi) Remarriage.

The important legislations relating to these aspects are:

The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929 (amended in 1978, dealing with age at marriage), the Special Marriage Act, 1954 (dealing with age at marriage, freedom to children to marry without parental consent, bigamy, and dissolving marriage), the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 (amended in 1986, and dealing with age at marriage with parents’ consent, bigamy, and annulment of marriage), Anti Dowry Act, 1961, and the Widow Remarriage Act, 1856.

The first three Acts (of 1929, 1954 and 1955) pertaining to the age of marriage prescribe the marriage age of girls as 18 years and for boys as 21 years. The difference in the Acts is that the 1929 Act (amended in 1978) does not invalidate the marriage for violating the provisions in the Act. It only prescribes punishment for the bridegroom, parents, guardians and the priest (but not for women).

The 1955 Act makes invalidation of the marriage possible for violation of the age provision. This (1955) Act cov­ers marriages performed with the consent of parents but the 1954 Act covers marriages performed through courts, with or without the parental consent. Both these Acts (1954 and 1955) prohibit bigamy and permit di­vorce also on various grounds and put restrictions on marriage within the degrees of prohibited relationships, unless custom permits such marriages.

The Anti-Dowry Act, 1961, has made giving and taking dowry as a legal offence. The Widow Remarriage Act, 1856 permits widows to remarry but forfeits them the right of maintenance from the property of the first husband. The Hindu Succession Act, 1956, has given share to wife and daughters in man’s properly equal to that of sons and brothers.

But will social legislation remove the problems of marriage and fam­ily like abolishing dowry and child marriages? Will it contain the exploitation of women and raise their status? We agree that social legisla­tion is necessary for providing new direction to culture and society and permitting change and removing evils by filling up the gap between social opinion and social needs of the people.

Dr. Radhakrishnan, at the time of introducing the bills related to marriage in 1952, said:

“The ancient his­tory cannot solve the problems of modern society.” The function of the social legislation is to adjust the legal system continually to a society which is constantly outgrowing that system. But is the government seri­ous about implementing these Acts? Who does not know the loopholes in all the Acts? Who does not know the indifference and the callousness of the police in taking action against the law-violators? While social legisla­tion is essential, the will to implement it is more crucial.

Uniform Civil Code (UCC):

The unilateral divorce and polygyny among Muslims is so much criticised that many people clamour for uniform civil code regarding marriage. The Muslims oppose it because they not only consider it interference in Mus­lim personal laws but also because the content of the UCC will be mainly drawn from the Hindu Act.

A survey was conducted among 395 persons (187 Hindu and 208 Muslims) in Aligarh in 1995 by the Institute for Development Studies (The Hindustan Times, January 1, 1996). About 60 per cent of the total respondents expressed undesirability of the UCC irre­spective of their religious background. On the other hand, on religious background basis, 74 per cent Hindus and 9 per cent Muslims expressed the desirability of the UCC.

The arguments in favour of the UCC were:

(1) National integration and secularism will be promoted;

(2) Growing communal and caste violence will be contained;

(3) The process of civil jus­tice will be strengthened; and

(4) The gender biases will be mitigated and feelings of equality amongst women will be perpetuated.

The 34 Muslims who supported the UCC were professional and white-collared persons (doctors, lawyers, engineers, college teachers, office workers and stu­dents).

The arguments against the UCC were:

(1) Muslims themselves do not feel any necessity for the change.

(2) The political groups are exploit­ing the religious sentiments of the people for creating their vote bank.

(3) Muslims hold that Hindus are trying to impose their cultural values on Muslims as the provisions in the UCC are mainly taken from the Hindu law.

(4) The UCC will generate heat, discontent and intolerance among different religious groups, particularly amongst minorities.

(5) Most Mus­lims hold that the UCC will tantamount to a denial of the fundamental right of freedom to religion and will hamper the development of the con­cept ‘unity in diversity’. The Hindus, however, do not share this opinion. It may be averred that if the UCC is not perceived from the ‘religious’ perspective but is viewed as a measure to check evils of polygyny and easy verbal divorce, a detailed discussion with non-orthodox religious leaders of different communities can help in the formulation of legislation.

Communalism in India

Communalism as a political philosophy has its roots in the religious and cultural diversity of India. It has been used as a political propaganda tool to create divide, differences and tensions between the communities on the basis of religious and ethnic identity leading to communal hatred and violence.

ü  In ancient Indian society, people of different faith coexisted peacefully.

ü  Buddha was perhaps the first Indian prophet who gave the concept of secularism.

ü  Meanwhile, Kings like Ashoka followed a policy of peace and religious tolerance.

Medieval India witnessed the arrival of Islam in India marked by occasional occurrences of violence such as Mahmud Ghazni’s destruction of Hindu temples and Mahmud of Ghor’s attack on Hindus, Jains and Buddhists. While, religion was an important part of people’s lives but there was no communal ideology or communal politics. Rulers like Akbar and Sher Shah Suri followed the religious policy of toleration towards different cultures and tradition practiced across country. However, some sectarian rulers like Aurangzeb were among the least tolerant towards other religious practises. As a modern phenomenon it has arose as a result of British colonial impact and the response of Indian social strata.

Reasons behind Communalism

The major factors that contributed towards the emergence and growth of communalism in modern India involves:

ü  British Imperialism and their Policy of “Divide and Rule”.

ü  Disappointment and disaffection among young and aspiring middle class youth, caused by stagnant agriculture, absence of modern industrial development and inadequate employment opportunities, which is being exploited by political opportunists.

ü  Hindu and Muslim revivalist movements

ü  A communal and distorted view of Indian history, taught in school and colleges played a major role in rise and growth of communal feelings among the masses.

ü  Separatism and isolation among Muslims.

Communal violence is a phenomenon where people belonging to two different religious communities mobilise and attacks each other with feelings of hatred and enmity.

The partition of India witnessed mass bloodshed and violence that continued up to 1949.

No major communal disturbances took place until 1961 when the Jabalpur riots shook the country due to economic competition between a Hindu and a Muslim bidi manufacturer than any electoral competition.

In 1960s – A series of riots broke out particularly in the eastern part of India - Rourkela, Jamshedpur and Ranchi - in 1964, 1965 and 1967, in places where Hindu refugees from the then East Pakistan were being settled.

In September, 1969, riots in Ahmedabad shook the conscience of the nation. The apparent cause was the Jan Sangh passing a resolution on Indianisation of Muslims to show its intense opposition to Indira Gandhi's leftward thrust.

In April, 1974, violence occurred in the chawl or tenement, in the Worli neighborhood of Mumbai after the police attempted to disperse a rally of the Dalit Panthers that had turned violent, angered by clashes with the Shiv Sena.

In February, 1983, the violence took place in Nellie as fallout of the decision to hold the controversial state elections in 1983 in the midst of the Assam Agitation, after Indira Gandhi’s decision to give 4 million immigrants from Bangladesh the right to vote. It has been described as one of the worst pogroms since World War II.

In October, 1984, the anti-Sikh riots broke out after the assassination of Indira Gandhi, where more than 4000 Sikhs were killed in Delhi, Uttar Pradesh and other parts of India.

Meanwhile, the Bombay-Bhiwandi riots were instigated by the Shiv Sena when it jumped on the Hindutva bandwagon to revive the political fortunes of the Shiv Sena which had lost its appeal.

The Shah Bano controversy in 1985 and the Babri Masjid-Ram Janmabhoomi controversy became powerful tools for intensifying communalism in the Eighties.

The communal violence touched its apogee in December 1992 when the Babri Masjid was demolished by right wing parties.

This was followed by the worst riots of post-independence India - in Mumbai, Surat, Ahmadabad, Kanpur, Delhi and other places.

In 2002, Gujarat witnessed communal riots when violence was triggered by burning of a train in Godhra.

In May, 2006 riots occurred in Vadodara due to the municipal council's decision to remove the dargah (shrine) of Syed Chishti Rashiduddin, a medieval Sufi saint.

In September, 2013, Uttar Pradesh witnessed the worst violence in recent history with clashes between the Hindu and Muslim communities in Muzaffarnagar district.

Since 2015, mob lynching is quite prevalent in India as near 90 people have been killed.

It can be termed as manufactured communal violence as through the use of social media and rumours society is polarized along religious lines.

Factors Responsible for Communal Violence

Divisive Politics – Communalism is often defined as a political doctrine that makes use of religious and cultural differences in achieving political gains.

Economic Causes – Uneven development, class divisions, poverty and unemployment aggravates insecurity in the common men which make them vulnerable to political manipulation.

History of Communal Riots – Probability of recurrence of communal riots in a town where communal riots have already taken place once or twice is stronger than in a town when such riots have never occurred.

Politics of Appeasement – Prompted by political considerations, and guided by their vested interests, political parties take decisions which promote communal violence.

Isolation and Economic Backwardness of Muslim Community – The failure to adopt the scientific and technological education and thus, insufficient representation in the public service, industry and trade etc has led to the feeling of relative deprivation among Muslims.

The resurgence of Hindu-Muslim economic competition, especially among the lower and middle class strata has fuelled the communal ideology.

Administrative Failure – A weak law and order is one of the causes of communal violence.

Psychological Factors – The lack of inter-personal trust and mutual understanding between two communities often result in perception of threat, harassment, fear and danger in one community against the members of the other community , which in turn leads to fight, hatred and anger phobia.

Role of Media – It is often accused of sensationalism and disseminates rumours as "news" which sometimes resulted into further tension and riots between two rival religious groups.

Social media has also emerged as a powerful medium to spread messages relating to communal tension or riot in any part of the country.

Measures to Deal with Communalism

There is need to reform in present criminal justice system, speedy trials and adequate compensation to the victims, may act as deterrent.

Increase in representation of minority community and weaker sections in all wings of law-enforcement, training of forces in human rights, especially in the use of firearms in accordance with UN code of conduct.

Codified guidelines for the administration, specialised training for the police force to handle communal riots and setting up special investigating and prosecuting agencies can help in damping major communal disgruntlement.

Emphasis on value-oriented education with focus on the values of peace, non-violence, compassion, secularism and humanism as well as developing scientific temper (enshrined as a fundamental duty) and rationalism as core values in children both in schools and colleges/universities, can prove vital in preventing communal feelings.

Government can adopt models followed by countries like Malaysia that has developed early-warning indicators to prevent racial clashes.

Government can encourage and support civil society and NGOs to run projects that help create communal awareness, build stronger community relation and cultivating values of communal harmony in next generation.

There is a need for minority welfare schemes to be launched and implemented efficiently by administration to address the challenges and various forms of discrimination faced by them in jobs, housing and daily life.

A pro-active approach by National Foundation for Communal Harmony (NFCH), the body responsible for promoting communal harmony is needed.

NFCH provides assistance for the physical and psychological rehabilitation of the child victims of communal, caste, ethnic or terrorist violence, besides promoting communal harmony, fraternity and national integration.

A legislation is required to curb the communal violence. Communal Violence (Prevention, Control and Rehabilitation of Victims) Bill, 2005 must be enacted soon.

 Religion in Ancient India

The predominant religion in ancient India was Hinduism. The roots of Hindu religion can be traced back to the Vedic period. Hinduism is believed to be the oldest of major religions and originated in northern India. Early Aryan, or Vedic, culture was the early Hinduism whose interaction with non-Aryan cultures resulted in what we call Classical Hinduism. It is interesting to note that much of ancient, classical and modern Indian culture has been greatly shaped by Hindu thought.

The Mahabharata and Ramayana, both sacred Hindu texts, served as India's main motivating base for a great deal of literary, artistic and musical creations in subsequent millennia. The Epic Period was a golden era in Indian philosophical thought because of the tolerance of different opinions and teachings. The most popular form of Indian medicine, Ayurveda, was .developed by Vedic saints and Jyotish, Hindu astrology, is the most popular form of astrology in India today. Yoga, an internationally-famous system of meditation, is one of six systems of Hindu thought.

Besides Hinduism, other main religions during ancient India were Buddhism, and Jainism. Buddhism originated in northern India in what is today the state of Bihar. It rapidly gained adherents during the Buddha's lifetime. Up to the 9th century, Indian followers numbered in the hundreds of millions. Buddhism, known in ancient India as Buddha Dharma, originated in northern India in what is today the state of Bihar. It rapidly gained adherents during the Buddha's lifetime. Up to the 9th century, Indian followers numbered in the hundreds of millions.

There also developed many heterodox religious sects in ancient India. One such sect was Ajivika, founded by Mahavira's rival Goshala Maskariputra. Ajivikas did not believe in karma and thought that the destiny was predetermined and could not be changed. There were also several other religious contemporaries to Buddha and Mahavira during the 6th century B.C. Another preacher of the same period was Pakuda Katyayana, who also taught that the soul was superior to good and evil, thus unchanged or untouched by it. He classified everything into seven categories, i.e. earth, water, fire, air, pleasure, pain and soul, which were eternal. Ajita Kesakambalin, another contemporary of Buddha taught complete materialism. He did not believe in the afterlife and considered death as the final phase of all souls.

Unit IV: Indian Languages and Literature

(Evolution of script and languages in India: Harappan Script and Brahmi Script

Short History of the Sanskrit literature: The Vedas, The Brahmanas and Upanishads & Sutras

Epics: Ramayana and Mahabharata & Puranas)

The Brahmi script is the earliest writing system developed in India after the Indus script. It is one of the most influential writing systems; all modern Indian scripts and several hundred scripts found in Southeast and East Asia are derived from Brahmi.

Vedas: The Vedas (Devanagari वेद) are a large corpus of texts originating in ancient India. They are the oldest scriptural texts of Hinduism and the oldest scriptural texts of any religion still in use. Since an oral Vedic tradition continued for centuries before they were compiled, organized, and written down, the composition of the Vedas is thought to have begun in the second millennium B.C.E. Today, Vedic texts are revered by Hindus around the world, and their verses are recited at prayers, religious functions and other auspicious occasions. The Vedas are said to contain the essence of Indian philosophy, and Vedic studies are crucial to the understanding of Indo-European linguistics, as well as ancient Indian history.

According to strict orthodox Hindu interpretation the Vedas are apauruṣeya ("not human compositions"), being supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are called śruti ("what is heard").

Hinduism, sometimes known as Sanatana Dharma ("Eternal Law"), refers to this belief in the ageless nature of the wisdom it embodies. Vedic texts are traditionally categorized into four classes: the Samhitās (mantras, hymns, prayers and litanies written in verse), Brahmanas (prose commentaries on sacrificial rituals), Aranyakas (discussions and interpretations of dangerous rituals), and Upanishads (philosophical commentaries and interpretations). There are four "Vedic" Samhitas: the Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda, most of which are available in several recensions (śākhā).

Philosophies and sects that developed in the Indian subcontinent have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their scriptural authority are classified as "orthodox" (āstika). Two other Indian philosophies, Buddhism and Jainism, did not accept the authority of the Vedas and evolved into separate religions. In Indian philosophy these groups are referred to as "heterodox" or "non-Vedic" (nāstika) schools.

Rather than representing individual consonant (C) and vowel (V) sounds, its basic writing units represent syllables of various kinds (e.g. CV, CCV, CCCV, CVC, VC). Scripts which operate on this basis are normally classified as syllabic, but because the V and C component of Brahmi symbols are clearly distinguishable, it is classified as an alpha-syllabic writing system.

Origin of the Brahmi Script

One question about the origin of the Brahmi script relates to whether this system derived from another script or it was an indigenous invention. In the late 19th century, Georg Bühler advanced the idea that Brahmi was derived from the Semitic script and adapted by the Brahman scholars to suit the phonetic of Sanskrit and Prakrit. India became exposed to Semitic writing during the 6th century BCE when the Achaemenid empire took control of the Indus Valley (part of present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northwestern India). Aramaic was the language of administration in the Achaemenid empire, and official records were written using a North Semitic script.

Greek and Aramaic inscriptions by king Ashoka

Around this time, another script also developed in the region, known as Kharosthi, which remained dominant in the Indus Valley region, while the Brahmi script was employed in the rest of India and other parts of South Asia. Although we are confident that Kharosthi is an adaptation of Semitic, the connection between Brahmi and Semitic remains unclear.

BY THE 2ND CENTURY BCE, THE BRAHMI SCRIPT BECOMES MORE WIDESPREAD & WE CAN ALSO DETECT THE RISE OF MARKED REGIONAL VARIATIONS.

There is a third position that claims that Brahmi derives from the Indus script, a writing system employed in the Indus Civilization which fell out of use as this civilization came to an end. Those who support this hypothesis point out the resemblance between some of the signs of these scripts. Given the complete absence of material evidence linking both writing systems, this view seems both speculative and hard to verify.

Despite the lack of any earlier examples, some scholars argued that the Brahmi script had originated earlier than the 3rd century BCE. They supported such a claim on the basis of a number of observations. Firstly, the composition of a set of texts, the Brahmanas, which were attached to the Vedic literature during the 6th century BC. The Brahmanas are the only section of the Vedic corpus written mostly in prose, unlike the earlier sections of the Vedas which are hymns for recitation, specially design for oral transmission. The emergence of prose is hard to imagine without the support of writing technology. Further evidence comes from the work of Panini, the renown ancient Indian grammarian who composed an influential work on grammar analysis of Sanskrit during the 5th or 4th century BCE. It is unlikely that a work like this could have been produced in a preliterate context. Knowledge of writing in India is also recorded by writers who joined Alexander to India roughly a century before the time of Ashoka. 

During the late 20th century CE, the notion that Brahmi originated before the 3rd century BCE gained strength when archaeologists working at Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka retrieved Brahmi inscriptions on pottery belonging to the 450-350 BCE period. The earliest of these examples are single letters, and their dates have been established through radiocarbon dating. The language of these inscriptions is North Indian Prakrit (Middle Indic), an Indo-Aryan language.

Development of the Brahmi Script

Most examples of Brahmi found in North and Central India represent Prakrit language. The Ashokan Inscriptions already show some slight regional variations on the Brahmi script. In South India, particularly in Tamil-Nadu, Brahmi inscriptions represent Tamil, a language belonging to the Dravidian language family, with no linguistic affiliation to the Indo-Aryan languages such as Sanskrit or Prakrit.

Pillar of Ashoka Fragment

Some Tamil examples come from inscribed potsherds found at Uraiyur (South India) dating to the 1^st century BCE or the 1st century CE. In Arikamedu (South India) there is also evidence of an early form of Tamil in Brahmi inscriptions, dated to the early centuries CE. At this stage, different Brahmi characters specially adapted to suit Tamil phonetic were already in use. Examples of Tamil have not been identified among the earliest securely dated examples of Brahmi found at Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka, where the language represented is Prakrit.

Material Form & Use

Ashokan inscriptions are found on carved rocks, caves, stones slabs, and rock pillars. We also have some examples of short Brahmi inscriptions on small seals made of ivory, bone, stone, and terracotta dated to Mauryan times. Other examples come from potsherds and copper plates. With the rise of Buddhism as the dominant faith in India, we find Brahmi inscriptions on monumental constructions known as 'donative records,' stating the names of different donors. The early 2nd century BCE saw the beginning of Brahmi inscriptions on coins.

The use of perishable materials as a writing medium is an ancient widespread practice in South Asia, particularly palm leaf and birch bark. As portable and affordable writing surfaces, these materials are ideal. Direct material evidence on the use of palm leaf and birch before the time of the Ashokan Inscriptions has not been found. This lack of direct evidence could have more to do with the bias of the archaeological record due to the destruction of evidence over time rather than the actual absence of a written tradition on perishable materials. Indirect evidence of the possible use of perishable writing surfaces has been retrieved at Sringaverapura in North India in the form of traces of birch wood, from levels dated to c. 10th to 7th century BCE period. D. Chakrabarti also mentions the presence of bone items described as possible stylus employed for writing on palm leaves and birch bark, but these objects could also have been arrows.

Literature in Sanskrit

Literature in Sanskrit, the classical language of India, represents a continuous cultural tradition from the time of the Vedas in the second millennium B.C.E. until the present. Sanskrit has an extremely rich and complex grammatical structure and an enormous vocabulary. It was a spoken language for centuries before the Vedas were written down. Around 600 B.C.E., in the classical period of Iron Age Ancient India, Sanskrit began the transition from a primary language to a second language of religion and learning, used by the educated elite. Literature in Sanskrit begins with the Vedas, and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India; the golden age of Classical Sanskrit literature dates to the Early Middle Ages (roughly the third to seventh centuries C.E.). Literary production in Sanskrit saw a late bloom in the eleventh century before declining after 1100 C.E.

Due to its extensive use in religious literature, primarily in Hinduism, and the fact that most modern Indian languages have been directly derived from or strongly influenced by Sanskrit, the language and its literature are of great importance in Indian culture, similar to the importance of Latin in European culture. There are contemporary efforts towards revival, with events like the "All-India Sanskrit Festival" (since 2002), which holds annual composition contests.

The Brahmanas are prose texts that discuss, in technical fashion, the solemn sacrificial rituals, as well as comment on their meaning and many connected themes. Each of the Brahmanas is associated with one of the Samhitas or its recensions. The Brahmanas may either form separate texts or can be partly integrated into the text of the Samhitas. They may also include the Aranyakas and Upanishads.

Upanishads: Upanishad means “sitting near,” alluding to the tutorials given by a guru to his disciples (who would traditionally sit “at his feet’). The Upanishads are philosophical texts delineating some of the key concepts within Hinduism, including notions of the soul, reincarnation, karma, Brahman and liberation. The Upanishads are sometimes considered the beginning of direct spiritual instruction within the Vedas. The traditional number of Upanishads is 108, though there are many more, especially of recent origin. Of these, 13 are usually considered most important.

Vedanta Sutras: The Vedanta Sutras (also called the Brahma Sutras) are an attempt by the sage Vyasa (Badarayana) to systematise the teachings of the Upanishads. There are a total of 550 aphorisms divided between four chapters. Various authors wrote lengthy commentaries upon them, giving rise to the many different and often conflicting schools of Vedanta (see Vedanta and Mimamsa). Because people are less philosophically inclined in Kali-Yuga, the Upanishads and Vedanta Sutra are considered difficult to understand without the guidance of the supplementary smriti literature.

Epic Hindu Literature: Ramayana, Mahabharata and Bhagavad Gita

Eventually, Hindus followed the impulse that had appeared among the Sumerians: they wrote poetic stories that focused on the power of the gods. These stories were written to create ideals for people to follow. The better known of these are poems called the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.

Ramayana translates as the Story of Rama. It is believed to have been written by a Brahmin named Valmiki, a man whose style of poetry was new and a style to be copied thereafter. It is said to have appeared between 400 and 200 BCE. The story takes place centuries earlier, when Aryans were expanding their influence over Dravidians in southern India, the Aryans engaging in missionary endeavors supported by military power and a strategy of divide and conquer. In its seven books and 24,000 verses the Ramayana praises the heroism and virtues of Aryan warrior-princes: the Kshatriyas. The Ramayana has as its main hero a prince called Rama, whose life the Ramayana describes from birth to death. Rama and his brothers are depicted as embodying the ideals of Aryan culture: men of loyalty and honor, faithful and dutiful sons, affectionate brothers and loving husbands, men who speak the truth, who are stern, who persevere but are ready and willing to make sacrifices for the sake of virtue against the evils of greed, lust and deceit.

The Mahabharata, meaning Great India, is said to have been written by a Brahmin named Vyasa, between 400 and 100 BCE, but no one really knows. Across centuries, priestly writers and editors with different attitudes in different centuries were to add to the work, and the Mahabharata emerged three times its original size. The Mahabharata was divided into eighteen books of verses interspersed with passages of prose. It attempted to describe the period in which Aryan tribes in northern India were uniting into kingdoms and when these petty kingdoms were fighting to create empire. The work attempted to be an encyclopedia about points of morality. One of its heroes is Krishna, described as a royal personage descended from the gods – an eighth incarnation of the god Vishnu. The Mahabharata's heroes are described as yearning for power but, like the heroes of the Ramayana, devoted to truth and having a strong sense of duty and affection for their parents.

New contributions to the Mahabharata gave greater focus to the gods Vishnu and Shiva. A story incorporated into the Mahabharata became known as the Bhagavad Gita (the Lord's Song), shortened by many to the Gita. The Bhagavad Gita became Hinduism's most popular scripture and into modern times it would be read by many for daily reference – a work that Mahatma Gandhi would describe as an infallible guide to conduct. In the Bhagavad Gita, Vishnu acquired a new incarnation: Krishna. Krishna was originally a non-Aryan god in northwestern India. In the old Mahabharata he was a secondary hero, a god who had appeared in human form. In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna became the Supreme Deity in human form.

The Gita is an account of the origins, course and aftermath of a great war between royalty. In it a dialogue takes place between a prince, Arjuna, and the charioteer alongside him as the two ride into battle at the head of Arjuna's army. The charioteer is Krishna in disguise. Arjuna sees that his opponents ahead of him are his relatives. He drops his bow and announces that he will not give the signal to begin the battle. He asks whether power is so important that he should fight his own kinsmen, and he states that the pain of killing his kinsmen would be too much for him, that it would be better for him to die than to kill just for power and its glory. Krishna is like the god of war of former times: Indira. Krishna gives Arjuna a formula for accepting deaths in war, a Hindu version close to the claim that those who die in battle will go to paradise. He tells Arjuna that bodies are not really people, that people are souls and that when the body is killed the soul lives on, that the soul is never born and never dies. According to Krishna, if one dies in battle he goes to heaven, or if he conquers he enjoys the earth. So, according to Krishna, one should go into battle with "a firm resolve." Attitude was of the utmost importance. "Let not the fruits of action be thy motive, nor be thy attachment to inaction."

Krishna reminds Arjuna that he is a warrior and that to turn from battle is to reject his karma, in other words, his duty or place in life. He makes the irrefutable argument, an argument that leaves no room for questioning one's own intentionality: that Arjuna should make war because it is his destiny to do so. He states that it is best to fulfill one's destiny with detachment because detachment leads to liberation and allows one to see the irrelevance of one's own work. To give weight to his argument, Krishna reveals to Arjuna that he is not just his charioteer, not just another military man who talks like he is divine but that he is the god Krishna – a claim that Arjuna accepts. Some readers of the Bhagavad Gita interpret this to mean that Arjuna does not need to step from his chariot to find God and that humanity does not need to search for the divine: that God is with a person and for a person.

Arjuna expresses his support for family values, and he is a defender of tradition. He complains of lawlessness corrupting women, and when women are corrupted, he says, a mixing of caste ensues.

Krishna became the most loved of the Hindu gods, a god viewed as a teacher, a personal god much like Yahweh, a god who not only believes in war but a god of love who gives those who worshiped him a gift of grace. A loving god could be found here and there in the old Vedic hymns of the Aryans, but this new focus on a loving god and the satisfaction it brought to the people of India was a challenge to Hindu priests, for it offered salvation without the need for ritual sacrifices. In the Bhagavad Gita (1:41), Krishna says: "Give me your heart. Love me and worship me always. Bow to me only, and you will find me. This I promise."

According to Krishna, as expressed in the Gita (2:37), one could accumulate possessions and not lose blessedness so long as one remained indifferent about success and failure. One can attain salvation so long as one restrains one's passions in whatever one does. One should be fearless, steadfast generous and patient. One should be compassionate toward other creatures. One should be without greed, hypocrisy, arrogance, overweening pride, wrath or harshness in speech. And one should "study the Holy Word, austerities and uprightness." (16:1-2)

The Gita (2.22) describes the soul as shedding a worn-out body like an old worn-out garment and putting on a new body as one would a new garment. The soul is immortal and the body is subject to birth and death. The Gita extends the metaphor to reincarnation, to Karma as described in the Upanishads. Where a soul went depended on how well a person had behaved in his previous life. Good actions in the former life led to a soul to take on a new higher form of life. The soul of the doer of evil led a soul to take the body of a lower form of life. Hinduism epic literature described what was good behavior, and in a new work, the Laws of Manu, defined more clearly what was bad.

VEDIC RELIGION

The religion of the Rig-Veda is well known. It was pre-eminently the worship of nature in its most imposing and sublime aspects. The sky which bends over all, the beautiful and blushing dawn which like a busy housewife wakes men from slumber and sends them to their work, the gorgeous tropical sun which vivifies the earth, the air which pervades the world, the fire which cheers and enlightens man, and the violent storms which in India usher in those copious rains which fill the land with plenty – these were the gods whom the early Hindus loved to extol and to worship. And often when an ancient Rishi sang the praises of any of the gods, he forgot that there was any other god besides, and his hymn had the character and the sublimity of a prayer to the one God of the universe. Indeed the seers themselves often rose higher than the level of nature-worship and boldly declared that the different gods were but different manifestations or different names of the one Primal Cause. The sky was naturally the most prominent object of worship, and as the sky assumes various aspects, various names were given to it, and the conception of various deities was formed.

Saraswati, as her name implies, is the goddess of the river of that name, which was considered holy because of the religious rites performed on its banks and the sacred hymns uttered there. By a natural development of ideas, she was considered the goddess of those hymns, or in other words the goddess of speech, in which character she is worshipped now. She is the only Vedic goddess whose worship continues in India to the present day; all her modern companions, Durga, Kali, Lakshmi, and others, are creations of a later day.

There are no indications in the Rig-Veda of any “temples reared by mortal hands” and consecrated as places of worship. On the contrary, every householder, every patriarch of his family, lighted the sacrificial fire in his own home and poured libations of the Soma-juice and prayed to the gods for happiness to his family, for abundant crops and wealth and cattle, for immunity from sickness, and for victory over the black aborigines. There was no separate priestly caste, and men did not retire into forests and subject themselves to penances in order to meditate on religion and chant these hymns. On the contrary, the old Rishis were worldly men, men with considerable property in crops and in cattle and surrounded by large families, men who in times of danger exchanged the plough for the Maa Kali as worshipped today spear and the sword, and defended against the black barbarians those blessings of civilization which they solicited from their gods and secured with so much care.

But though each householder was himself the priest, the warrior, and the cultivator, yet we find evidence of kings performing rites on a large scale by help of men specially proficient in the chanting of the by and in other religious rites and specially engaged and paid for the purpose. And as we go towards the later hymns of the Rig-Veda, we find this class of professional priests gaining in reputation and in wealth, honoured by chiefs and kings, and rewarded by princely gifts of cattle and chariots. We find mention of particular families specially proficient in the performance of religious rites and ceremonies and in the composition of hymns, and it is more than probable that the existing hymns of the Rig-Veda were composed by members of these families and were traditionally learnt by rote and preserved in those families.

It is to these and other venerable houses that the Aryan world owes the preservation of the most ancient compositions of the Aryan race. From century to century the hymns were handed down without break or intermission, and the youths of the priestly houses spent the prime of their life in learning by rote the sacred songs from the lips of their gray-headed sires. It was thus that the inestimable treasure, the Rig-Veda, was preserved for hundreds of years.

In course of time the priests boldly grappled with the deeper mysteries of nature, they speculated about creation and about the future world, and they resolved the nature-gods into the Supreme Deity. “That all-wise Father saw clearly, and after due reflection created the sky and the earth in their watery form and touching each other. When their boundaries were stretched afar, then the sky and the earth became separated.

“He who is the Creator of all is great; he creates and supports all, he is above all and sees all. He is beyond the seat of the seven Rishis. So the wise men say, and the wise men obtain fulfilment of all their desires. “He who has given us life, he who is the Creator, he who knows all the places in this universe – he is one, although he bears the names of many gods. Other beings wish to know of him. “You cannot comprehend him who has created all this; he is incomprehensible to your mind. People make guesses, being shrouded in a mist; they take their food for the support of their life and utter hymns and wander about.” This sublime hymn teaches us in unmistakable words that the different Vedic gods are but different names of the one incomprehensible Deity. We quote another such hymn:–

“At that time what is, was not, and what is not, was not. The earth was not, and the far-stretching sky was not. What was there that covered? Which place was assigned to what object? Did the inviolate and deep water exist?

“At that time death was not, nor immortality; the distinction between day and night was not. There was only One who lived and breathed without the help of air, supported by himself. Nothing was, excepting Him

“At first darkness was covered in darkness. All was without demarcation; all was of watery form. The world that was a void was covered by what did not exist and was produced by meditation.

“Desire arose in the mind, the cause of creation was thus produced. Wise men reflect and in their wisdom ascertain the birth of what is from what is not.

“Males with generating seed were produced, and powers were also produced. Their rays extended on both sides and below and above, a self-supporting principle beneath, an energy aloft.

“Who knows truly? Who will describe? When

was all born? Whence were all these created? The gods have been made after the creation. Who knows whence they were made?

“Whence all these were created, from whom they came, whether any one created them or did not create, is known only to Him who lives as Lord in the highest place. If He knows not (no one else knows).”

We will quote here one more hymn, which shows how the later Rishis soared beyond the conception of the nature-gods to the sublime idea of One Deity:–

“In the beginning the Golden Child existed. He was the Lord of all from his birth. He placed this earth and sky in their respective places. Whom shall we worship with offerings?

“Him who has given life and strength, whose will is obeyed by all the gods, whose shadow is immortality and whose slave is death. Whom shall we worship with offerings?

“Him who by his power is the sole king of all the living beings that see and move; him who is the Lord of all bipeds and quadrupeds. Whom shall we worship with offerings?

“Him by whose power these snowy mountains have been made, and whose creations are this earth and its oceans. Him whose arms are these quarters of space. Whom shall we worship with offerings?

“Him who has fixed in their places this sky and this earth; him who has established the heavens and the highest heaven; him who has measured the firmament. Whom shall we worship with offerings?

“Him by whom the sounding sky and earth have been fixed and expanded; him whom the resplendent sky and earth own as Almighty; him by whose support the sun rises and gains its lustre. Whom shall we worship with offerings?

“Mighty waters pervaded the universe, they held in their womb and gave birth to fire. The One Being, who is the life of the gods, appeared. Whom shall we worship with offerings?

“He who by his own prowess controlled the waters which gave birth to energy, he who is the Lord above all gods, he was One. Whom shall we worship with offerings?

“He, the True, who is the creator of this earth, who is the creator of the sky, who is the creator of the glad and mighty waters – may he not do us harm! Whom shall we worship with offerings?

“O Lord of creatures! None but thee has produced all these created things. May the object with which we worship be fulfilled! May we acquire wealth and happiness!”

Thus the religion of the Rig-Veda ascends from nature up to nature’s God. The worshipper appreciates the glorious phenomena of nature, and rises from these phenomena to grasp the mysteries of creation and its great Creator.

Deciphering Harappan Script: Most Mysterious Writing in The World

For many years, researchers on the Harappan scripts have been applying statistical data to show the frequent clustering of certain symbols that tend to imply words (or syntax), thus countering arguments that Harappan scripts do not represent a true form of writing. Harappa civilisation, Harappan script, Indus valley civilisation, mysterious writing of Harappa, Mohenjo Daro, Indus valley script Despite a large number of archaeological artefacts found from the 1,000 plus settlement sites, the Indus Valley civilisation largely remained a mystery.

It was long back in the 1920s, when excavations at various sites across north-west India and Pakistan brought forth to light the presence of the Harappan civilisation. One among the world’s oldest civilisations, the settlements were found as scattered ruins of large well-planned brick-laid cities neatly laid around the Indus and Ghagghar river belts. Despite a large number of archaeological artefacts found from the 1,000 plus settlement sites, the civilisation largely remained a mystery. This was primarily because unlike the Egyptian hieroglyphs, or the Mayan writing, Harappan scripts remained undecipherable, despite innumerable attempts to read it.

Thus, there is no concrete information available to read the names of the Harappan kings (if any), gods, or even the common people. The Indus script still remains an unknown writing system, a mystery where the inscriptions appear short, with no more than five signs on the average.

In 1966, the well-known archaeologist B. B. Lal after extensive studies concluded that the Harappan texts were to be read from right to left, and it is, as the well-known scholar on Harappan civilization Bryan Wells sums up, just about the only thing Harappan researchers can agree on. Beyond that, there is not much consensus on how to read the scripts, with many scholars attempting and proposing various speculative decipherments right from the time of its discovery.

Besides the problem of not being able to decipher the script, some researchers also contend that there were no languages present in the Harappan civilisation, and the inscriptions were, in reality, an alternate system comprising of symbols, akin to emblems, that merely express some general meanings. For many years, researchers on the Harappan scripts have been applying statistical data to show the frequent clustering of certain symbols that tend to imply words (or syntax), thus countering arguments that Harappan scripts do not represent a true form of writing. Computer scientists too have shown using conditional entropy that the Harappan scripts tend to resemble highly ordered writing systems, similar to computer code sequences or DNA codes. Various probability theories also show that the Harappan inscriptions show a certain extent of predictability, which is a common feature of true writing.Harappa civilisation, Harappan script, Indus valley civilisation, mysterious writing of Harappa, Mohenjo Daro, Indus valley script

Recently, an IT professional from West Bengal Bahata Angshumali Mukhopadhyay in her paper titled as Interrogating Indus inscription to unravel their mechanism of meaning conveyance that was published in the Palgrave Communications (Nature group journal) claims that most of the Indus Valley scripts were logographic where one symbol or letter denoted an entire word (as seen in the Chinese writing system), and was not based on phonography (speech that is based on sound). In her paper, Bahata Angshumali further claims that the Harappan scripts are comparable to coded messages seen on modern-day stamps, coins, and tokens.

Unit V: A Brief History of Indian Arts and Architecture

Indian Art and Architecture

From at least 3000 B.C. to the present day, many civilizations have flourished on the subcontinent of India (which includes today's countries of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh). Each has made valuable contributions to India's rich artistic heritage.

Several of the world's major religions (including Buddhism and Jainism, Hinduism, and Islam) either began in India or flourished there. India has also been home to small communities of Jews, Christians, and Parsis. (Parsis are Iranian fire-worshipers who moved to India in the early A.D. 700's). Much Indian art, therefore, has a religious content.

SCULPTURE

The earliest examples of Indian art come from the Indus Valley, an area in present-day Pakistan. The Indus Valley, or Harappan, civilization flourished from about 3200 to 2000 B.C. Many small sculptures of metal and clay survive from this period. They usually represent human or animal figures. Other objects include soapstone seals engraved with writing and animal forms. The seals may have been used to stamp trade goods or as a means of personal identification.

Four larger bronze statues of a buffalo, rhinoceros, elephant, and bull with chariot driver have also been found near Bombay. They are thought to date from about 1300 B.C.

About 1500 B.C., nomads from the Russian steppes (plains) invaded India. The era that followed is known as the Vedic period. It was named for the religious hymns called Vedas that were brought by the nomads to India. Except for some pottery and metal figures, few works of art remain from the Vedic period.

Buddhist Sculpture

Indian sculpture flourished during the Mauryan dynasty (about 321-184 B.C.). Much of the surviving art of this age is Buddhist. Among the most important monuments of the Mauryan period are large stone pillars that stood at crossroads and important sites. A pillar often had a lotus-shaped top bearing the figure of a lion. The lion was a symbol of imperial rule borrowed from Iranian art. Many pillars also featured important Indian symbols. These included the elephant, the bull, and the lotus itself.

Asoka (Ashoka) was the most famous Mauryan ruler. He made Buddhism the state religion. But he tolerated the worship of such traditional village gods as yakshas and yakshis. These were male and female nature spirits. Many larger-than-life stone images of these spirits were made during Asoka's reign. Smaller versions began to be placed on Buddhist monuments.

During the Mauryan period and the following Shunga dynasty, burial mounds (stupas) were built. Often, ornately carved gateways surrounded the stupas. Reliefs (raised carvings) on the gateways used symbols rather than a human image to represent Buddha.

During the Kushan dynasty (about A.D. 50-250), Buddhism spread to areas outside India. To teach new followers the story of Buddha's life on earth, relief carvings began to show Buddha in human form. Early images of Buddha had staring eyes and a tense smile. By the Gupta period (A.D. 320-475), the images of Buddha had changed. He had a more inward, meditative look, with downcast eyes and a graceful pose.

Hindu Sculpture

Small images of Hindu gods were also carved of stone. Although made in human form, the images were also meant to show the many different forms taken by Hindu gods. Some gods were given many arms or heads. They were always shown carrying certain emblems.

In northern India during the Gupta dynasty, images of Hindu gods were carved into the rock in man-made caves or housed in temples. Such temples appeared across India after A.D. 400. Elaborate relief carvings were made on the temple walls. These represented a variety of gods and their attendants.

In southern India after 800, bronze figures of Hindu gods were made. It was believed that the spirit of a temple god could be transferred to the statue. The statue was then carried in a religious procession. Outstanding bronzes were made in the Chola period (800-1200).

During the period from 900 to 1500, Hindu sculpture in the north tended to emphasize rich decoration. Much of this sculpture was used to ornament religious buildings. Sculpture of figures decreased after 1200 when northern India was ruled by Islamic leaders. Islam forbade the use of human images for worship. Figural sculpture was produced for Hindu rulers, however.

Traditional sculpture continues to be made in modern India, mainly for an international tourist market. Other sculptors have experimented with modern styles and techniques.

PAINTING

The people of ancient India made little distinction between artists who made images in paint and those who carved in stone. Each brought reality into being through his art.

Wall Painting

In the first centuries A.D., large Buddhist temples and monasteries were cut into cliffs near Bombay. The walls of these cave-halls are decorated with both carved and painted images. Some of the paintings date from the first century and earlier. But most were made in the 400's, when support for the arts came mainly from the royal court of the Vakataka dynasty. The painting style used at one site, Ajanta, later spread from India into Afghanistan and Central Asia. Figures are realistically painted and firmly outlined. Color is used for shading and to suggest the body's solidity. The scenes seem to project out from the painted wall.

Manuscript Illustration

Illustrated manuscripts were made in India beginning in the 1000's. Early manuscripts had writing surfaces made from palm leaves. Some schools of manuscript illustration tried to imitate the complex colors and solidly modeled shapes of earlier wall paintings. In western India, however, a different style of manuscript painting developed. There, manuscripts that told the life stories of saints of the Jain religion were used as offerings in temples. Their illustrations had flattened shapes and areas of pure, bright color. Illustrations made in this style stand out from the text. They can be easily understood by the viewer.

The Mogul (Mughal) dynasty came to power in the 1500's. It ruled much of India until the British took control in the 1850's. Mogul rulers followed the Islamic faith. They brought Islamic artists from Iran to train talented Indian painters. The literary works commonly illustrated in the Islamic world were very different from the religious texts illustrated by Indian artists. Many were myths or histories of kings. Akbar, one of the most famous Mogul rulers, encouraged painters to record the world around them. During his rule, Mogul painting combined Islamic, Hindu, and European elements into an original and expressive style.

Another style of manuscript painting developed in the courts of the Rajput rulers in northern India. These works continued to follow older Hindu themes. But they also adopted some Mogul traditions, such as portrait painting. Some Mogul court-painters went to Rajput kingdoms in the Pahari hills when Mogul power declined in the 1600's. A Pahari school of manuscript illustration developed in the 1800's that used pastel colors rather than the bright, intense colors of earlier Rajput paintings.

Modern Painting

The observation of nature encouraged by some Mogul rulers continued under the British, who first went to India as traders in the 1700's. Paintings made for the British East India Company include detailed studies of birds. These resembled the works of the American painter and naturalist John James Audubon (who painted the birds of North America). European painters who worked in oils also went to India and painted for local Hindu rulers. In the late 1800's, art schools modeled on European institutions were established in Calcutta and Bombay. A number of talented Indian painters were trained at these schools.

Early in the 1900's, a South Indian artist, Ravi Varma, made large oil paintings of Hindu gods in the style of British portrait paintings of the 1800's. These works had a strong influence on modern images of Hindu gods. A painter from eastern India, Jamini Roy, used the simple lines of modern European painters such as Henri Matisse to cast traditional folk images in a new light.

The writer Rabindranath Tagore, who won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1913, was also a painter. Tagore's nephew, Abanindranath, and his followers tried to combine Indian painting traditions with other Asian styles. Their work has had little influence on modern Indian art, however.

The oil paintings of Amrita Sher-Gil, on the other hand, continue to influence many Indian painters. Sher-Gil, who was half Hungarian, studied in Europe, but her paintings have a well-observed Indian content.

Other modern painters have followed a variety of international models. Most seek in personal ways to find a means of expression that can be both modern and Indian.

ARCHITECTURE

During the Indus Valley period, cities were built according to a grid pattern of intersecting streets. Buildings were made of brick. Later Hindu cities seem less organized. But similar rules of planning were laid down in Hindu architectural manuals. In Buddhist India small trading towns formed as centers of commerce, linked by trade routes. Structures were built of brick or mud. They often had pillared halls, balconies, and vaulted roofs with dormer windows.

Cave Architecture

The design of Buddhist cave-halls carved into the mountainsides near Bombay was based on the free-standing structures built in towns. Cave architecture continued at least into the 800's at such sites as Ajanta and Ellora. They were created by Hindus and Jains as well as Buddhists. In some cases, whole temples were carved out of the rock. The most famous rock-cut temple at Ellora is called the Kailasa temple. It was named after the mountain on which the Hindu god Shiva was said to have his palace.

Temples

Large free-standing temples were built in India from the 500's onward, mainly by Hindus and Jains. In the north, these temples had curving towers. The architecture of the temple was used to symbolize many things. These included an altar, a residence for a god, or a shelter for the worshiper seeking enlightenment. Many such temples were built in northern India. Outstanding examples are also found at Khajuraho in central India, Bhubaneswar on the eastern coast, and Somnath in the west. In southern India, temples were more like palaces. Great walls with tall gateways were built to include much of the surrounding city within the temple grounds.

Islamic Architecture

Islamic rulers gained political control over northern India in the 1190's. Long before this period, Islamic merchants along the coasts of India had hired local craftsmen to build structures for their use. One common type of Islamic building is the mosque. A mosque is where the faithful gather for prayer. Most mosques have an open courtyard surrounded by a covered hallway and are oriented toward the sacred city of Mecca. (In India, this would be to the west-southwest.)

Under the patronage of sultans and emperors, a variety of Indo-Islamic architectural styles developed. Some were based on local styles. Others borrowed from Islamic traditions. Mosques, tombs, and palaces all survive from this era, known as the Sultanate period. They also survive from the period of Mogul rule that followed it.

A masterpiece of Indo-Islamic architecture is the Taj Mahal. This large marble structure was built in the 1600's by Shah Jahan, a Mogul emperor, as a tomb for his wife. It combines architectural conventions from Central Asia with uniquely Indian craftsmanship and materials.

Modern Architecture

Architecture in modern India draws on a variety of contemporary styles. For example, buildings in the capital, New Delhi, were designed by the British architect Edwin Lutyens in the early to mid-1900's. They were built by Indian craftsmen, however, and are decorated with a variety of Indian designs.

After the creation of the nations of India and Pakistan in 1947, the Indian government asked the great French architect Le Corbusier to create a plan for the new capital of the Punjab State at Chandigarh. Le Corbusier also designed many buildings in the city of Ahmedabad in western India. One of his supervising architects, B. K. Doshi, founded India's premier school of architecture there in the early 1960's.

INDIAN ART

India has a rich and complex history spanning thousands of years. India was the only major Asian culture known to be visited by the ancient Greeks and Romans and has caused fascination as an exotic and mysterious land ever since. Such an image developed partly in thanks to its exuberant and unique art.

Indian art is a term used in art history to group and study the different artistic expressions created in the historical regions of the Indian subcontinent, including modern-day India, Bangladesh, and areas of Pakistan and Afghanistan. It covers several art forms, historical periods, and influences.

History

Archaeologists have found evidence of prehistoric rock art in India, an early art form consisting of carvings or drawings on cave rocks. The oldest examples are the Bhimbetka petroglyphs found in central India and believed to be at least 290,000 years old. Rock art continued to be created as cave paintings, representing animals and humans. The oldest examples of these paintings date from about 7000 BCE.

Cave paintings

The people of the Indus valley civilization on the border of modern India and Pakistan produced the earliest known Indian art sculptures, from between 2500 and 1800 BCE. They were small terracotta and bronze figures depicting animals and humans, like cows, monkeys, and dancing positions.

Buddhism originated in India at some point in the 6th century BCE. Religious artists made sculpture pieces, including stone and bronze. They also produced magnificent examples of Indian cave art, with entire temples being carved in stone and decorated with Greek-influenced columns and sculptures. By the 5th century CE, sculpture was a common practice among Indian Buddhists and Hindus.

Hinduism continued to be the focus of art creation for centuries, sculptures of Shiva and other deities, and huge stone temples like the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, built in the 11th century in northern India.

India became a British colony in the 19th century, which had a big impact on art. The British established art schools that promoted European styles, and back in Europe people demanded Indian objects. This resulted in local artistic traditions merging with foreign influences. A romanticized Indian style developed, which exaggerated traditional ornaments to please the European buyers.

Types & Styles

Traditional Indian art usually had a religious character and Buddhism, Hinduism, and later Islam, have been a common theme throughout the centuries. The pieces often feature mythological, human, and animal forms and had elaborate ornaments. Unlike other areas influenced by Islam, Indian art didn't abandon figurative representations.

Architecture focused mostly on religious buildings. Many Hindu temples featured very distinctive towers in the form of truncated pyramids and had elaborate ornamentation with hundreds of sculptures. However, many were later destroyed under Muslim rule, among other things, because of their erotic decorations.

Mughal architecture incorporated many Islamic elements. Arches and domes became common, and the decoration was full of geometric patterns and stylized flowers.

Further readings:

https://knowindia.gov.in/culture-and-heritage/lifestyle-values-and-beliefs.php

http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/essay/essay-on-culture-definition-components-and-types/76839

https://www.timemaps.com/civilizations/Classical-India/

https://erenow.net/exams/indian-history/3.php

http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/india/pro-religion.htm